Functional loss of a noncanonical BCOR-PRC1.1 complex accelerates SHH-driven medulloblastoma formation.

Medulloblastoma is a malignant childhood brain tumor arising from the developing cerebellum. In Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) subgroup medulloblastoma, aberrant activation of SHH signaling causes increased proliferation of granule neuron progenitors (GNPs), and predisposes these cells to tumorigenesis. A second, cooperating genetic hit is often required to push these hyperplastic cells to malignancy and confer mutation-specific characteristics associated with oncogenic signaling. Somatic loss-of-function mutations of the transcriptional corepressor BCOR are recurrent and enriched in SHH medulloblastoma. To investigate BCOR as a putative tumor suppressor, we used a genetically engineered mouse model to delete exons 9/10 of Bcor (BcorΔE9-10 ) in GNPs during development. This mutation leads to reduced expression of C-terminally truncated BCOR (BCORΔE9-10). While BcorΔE9-10 alone did not promote tumorigenesis or affect GNP differentiation, BcorΔE9-10 combined with loss of the SHH receptor gene Ptch1 resulted in fully penetrant medulloblastomas. In Ptch1+/- ;BcorΔE9-10 tumors, the growth factor gene Igf2 was aberrantly up-regulated, and ectopic Igf2 overexpression was sufficient to drive tumorigenesis in Ptch1+/- GNPs. BCOR directly regulates Igf2, likely through the PRC1.1 complex; the repressive histone mark H2AK119Ub is decreased at the Igf2 promoter in Ptch1+/- ;BcorΔE9-10 tumors. Overall, our data suggests that BCOR-PRC1.1 disruption leads to Igf2 overexpression, which transforms preneoplastic cells to malignant tumors.

YAP1 subgroup supratentorial ependymoma requires TEAD and nuclear factor I-mediated transcriptional programmes for tumorigenesis.

YAP1 fusion-positive supratentorial ependymomas predominantly occur in infants, but the molecular mechanisms of oncogenesis are unknown. Here we show YAP1-MAMLD1 fusions are sufficient to drive malignant transformation in mice, and the resulting tumors share histo-molecular characteristics of human ependymomas. Nuclear localization of YAP1-MAMLD1 protein is mediated by MAMLD1 and independent of YAP1-Ser127 phosphorylation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing analyses of human YAP1-MAMLD1-positive ependymoma reveal enrichment of NFI and TEAD transcription factor binding site motifs in YAP1-bound regulatory elements, suggesting a role for these transcription factors in YAP1-MAMLD1-driven tumorigenesis. Mutation of the TEAD binding site in the YAP1 fusion or repression of NFI targets prevents tumor induction in mice. Together, these results demonstrate that the YAP1-MAMLD1 fusion functions as an oncogenic driver of ependymoma through recruitment of TEADs and NFIs, indicating a rationale for preclinical studies to block the interaction between YAP1 fusions and NFI and TEAD transcription factors.

A PML/Slit Axis Controls Physiological Cell Migration and Cancer Invasion in the CNS.

Cell migration through the brain parenchyma underpins neurogenesis and glioblastoma (GBM) development. Since GBM cells and neuroblasts use the same migratory routes, mechanisms underlying migration during neurogenesis and brain cancer pathogenesis may be similar. Here, we identify a common pathway controlling cell migration in normal and neoplastic cells in the CNS. The nuclear scaffold protein promyelocytic leukemia (PML), a regulator of forebrain development, promotes neural progenitor/stem cell (NPC) and neuroblast migration in the adult mouse brain. The PML pro-migratory role is active also in transformed mouse NPCs and in human primary GBM cells. In both normal and neoplastic settings, PML controls cell migration via Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2)-mediated repression of Slits, key regulators of axon guidance. Finally, a PML/SLIT1 axis regulates sensitivity to the PML-targeting drug arsenic trioxide in primary GBM cells. Taken together, these findings uncover a drug-targetable molecular axis controlling cell migration in both normal and neoplastic cells.

TAM Receptor Tyrosine Kinases in Cancer Drug Resistance.

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) are major regulators of key biological processes, including cell growth, survival, and differentiation, and were established early on as proto-oncogenes, with aberrant expression linked to tumor progression in many cancers. Therefore, RTKs have emerged as major targets for selective therapy with small-molecule inhibitors. However, despite improvements in survival rates, it is now apparent that the targeting of RTKs with selective inhibitors is only transiently effective, as the majority of patients eventually become resistant to therapy. As chemoresistance is the leading cause of cancer spread, progression, and mortality, there is an increasing need for understanding the mechanisms by which cancer cells can evade therapy-induced cell death. The TAM (Tyro3, Axl, Mer) subfamily of RTKs in particular feature in a variety of cancer types that have developed resistance to a broad range of therapeutic agents, including both targeted as well as conventional chemotherapeutics. This article reviews the roles of TAMs as tumor drivers and as mediators of chemoresistance, and the potential effectiveness of targeting them as part of therapeutic strategies to delay or combat resistance. Cancer Res; 77(11); 2775-8. ©2017 AACR.

Small molecule inhibition of Axl receptor tyrosine kinase potently suppresses multiple malignant properties of glioma cells.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) often features a combination of tumour suppressor gene inactivation and multiple oncogene overactivation. The Axl receptor tyrosine kinase is found overexpressed in GBM and thought to contribute to invasiveness, chemoresistance and poor survival. Here, we have evaluated the effect of BGB324, a clinical candidate Axl-specific small molecule inhibitor, on the invasive behaviour of human GBM cells in vitro, as an indicator of its potential in GBM therapy and also to elucidate the role of Axl in GBM pathogenesis.Two cultured adult GBM cell lines, SNB-19 and UP007, were treated with Gas6 and/or BGB324, and analysed in assays for survival, 3D colony growth, motility, migration and invasion. Western blot was used to detect protein expression and signal protein phosphorylation. In both cell lines, BGB324 inhibited specifically phosphorylation of Axl as well as Akt kinase further downstream. BGB324 also inhibited survival and proliferation of both cell lines in a concentration-dependent manner, as well as completely suppressing migration and invasion. Furthermore, our results indicate co-operative activation between the Axl and Tyro3 receptors, as well as ligand-independent Axl signalling, to take place in GBM cells. In conclusion, small molecule inhibitor-led targeting of Axl may be a promising therapy for GBM progression.

Brain tumor cell line authentication, an efficient alternative to capillary electrophoresis by using a microfluidics-based system.

BACKGROUND: The current method for cell line authentication is genotyping based on short tandem repeat (STR)-PCR involving coamplification of a panel of STR loci by multiplex PCR and downstream fragment length analysis (FLA), usually performed by capillary electrophoresis. FLA by capillary electrophoresis is time-consuming and can be expensive, as the facilities are generally not accessible for many research laboratories. METHODS: In the present study, a microfluidic electrophoresis system, the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer, was used to analyze the STR-PCR fragments from 10 human genomic loci of a number of human cell lines, including 6 gliomas, 1 astrocyte, 1 primary lung cancer, 1 lung brain metastatic cancer, and 1 rhabdomyosarcoma; and this was compared with the standard method, that is, capillary electrophoresis, using the Applied Biosystems 3130xl Genetic Analyzer. RESULTS: The microfluidic electrophoresis method produced highly reproducible results with good sensitivity in sizing of multiple PCR fragments, and each cell line demonstrated a unique DNA profile. Furthermore, DNA fingerprinting of samples from 5 different passage numbers of the same cell line showed excellent reproducibility when FLA was performed with the Bioanalyzer, indicating that no cross-contamination had occurred during the culture period. CONCLUSION: This novel application provides a straightforward and cost-effective alternative to STR-based cell line authentication. In addition, this application would be of great value for cell bank repositories to maintain and distribute precious cell lines.