Kidney-Related Function of Mitochondrial Protein Mitoregulin.

A small protein, Mitoregulin (Mtln), localizes in mitochondria and contributes to oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid metabolism. Mtln knockout mice develop obesity on a high-fat diet, demonstrating elevated cardiolipin damage and suboptimal creatine kinase oligomerization in muscle tissue. Kidneys heavily depend on the oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. Here we report kidney-related phenotypes in aged Mtln knockout mice. Similar to Mtln knockout mice muscle mitochondria, those of the kidney demonstrate a decreased respiratory complex I activity and excessive cardiolipin damage. Aged male mice carrying Mtln knockout demonstrated an increased frequency of renal proximal tubules' degeneration. At the same time, a decreased glomerular filtration rate has been more frequently detected in aged female mice devoid of Mtln. An amount of Mtln partner protein, Cyb5r3, is drastically decreased in the kidneys of Mtln knockout mice.

Surprisingly long survival of premature conclusions about naked mole-rat biology.

Naked mole-rats express many unusual traits for such a small rodent. Their morphology, social behaviour, physiology, and ageing have been well studied over the past half-century. Many early findings and speculations about this subterranean species persist in the literature, although some have been repeatedly questioned or refuted. While the popularity of this species as a natural-history curiosity, and oversimplified story-telling in science journalism, might have fuelled the perpetuation of such misconceptions, an accurate understanding of their biology is especially important for this new biomedical model organism. We review 28 of these persistent myths about naked mole-rat sensory abilities, ecophysiology, social behaviour, development and ageing, and where possible we explain how these misunderstandings came about.

Mild depolarization of the inner mitochondrial membrane is a crucial component of an anti-aging program.

The mitochondria of various tissues from mice, naked mole rats (NMRs), and bats possess two mechanistically similar systems to prevent the generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS): hexokinases I and II and creatine kinase bound to mitochondrial membranes. Both systems operate in a manner such that one of the kinase substrates (mitochondrial ATP) is electrophoretically transported by the ATP/ADP antiporter to the catalytic site of bound hexokinase or bound creatine kinase without ATP dilution in the cytosol. One of the kinase reaction products, ADP, is transported back to the mitochondrial matrix via the antiporter, again through an electrophoretic process without cytosol dilution. The system in question continuously supports H+-ATP synthase with ADP until glucose or creatine is available. Under these conditions, the membrane potential, ∆ψ, is maintained at a lower than maximal level (i.e., mild depolarization of mitochondria). This ∆ψ decrease is sufficient to completely inhibit mROS generation. In 2.5-y-old mice, mild depolarization disappears in the skeletal muscles, diaphragm, heart, spleen, and brain and partially in the lung and kidney. This age-dependent decrease in the levels of bound kinases is not observed in NMRs and bats for many years. As a result, ROS-mediated protein damage, which is substantial during the aging of short-lived mice, is stabilized at low levels during the aging of long-lived NMRs and bats. It is suggested that this mitochondrial mild depolarization is a crucial component of the mitochondrial anti-aging system.

Coding palindromes in mitochondrial genes of Nematomorpha.

Inverted repeats are common DNA elements, but they rarely overlap with protein-coding sequences due to the ensuing conflict with the structure and function of the encoded protein. We discovered numerous perfect inverted repeats of considerable length (up to 284 bp) embedded within the protein-coding genes in mitochondrial genomes of four Nematomorpha species. Strikingly, both arms of the inverted repeats encode conserved regions of the amino acid sequence. We confirmed enzymatic activity of the respiratory complex I encoded by inverted repeat-containing genes. The nucleotide composition of inverted repeats suggests strong selection at the amino acid level in these regions. We conclude that the inverted repeat-containing genes are transcribed and translated into functional proteins. The survey of available mitochondrial genomes reveals that several other organisms possess similar albeit shorter embedded repeats. Mitochondrial genomes of Nematomorpha demonstrate an extraordinary evolutionary compromise where protein function and stringent secondary structure elements within the coding regions are preserved simultaneously.

Effect of aerobic training on baseline expression of signaling and respiratory proteins in human skeletal muscle.

Most studies examining the molecular mechanisms underlying adaptation of human skeletal muscles to aerobic exercise focused on the response to acute exercise. Here, we examined the effect of a 2-month aerobic training program on baseline parameters in human muscle. Ten untrained males performed a one-legged knee extension exercise for 1 h with the same relative intensity before and after a 2-month aerobic training program. Biopsy samples were taken from vastus lateralis muscle at rest before and after the 2 month training program (baseline samples). Additionally, biopsy samples were taken from the exercised leg 1 and 4 h after the one-legged continuous knee extension exercise. Aerobic training decreases baseline phosphorylation of FOXO1Ser256 , increases that of CaMKIIThr286 , CREB1Ser133 , increases baseline expression of mitochondrial proteins in respiratory complexes I-V, and some regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis (TFAM, NR4A3, and CRTC2). An increase in the baseline content of these proteins was not associated with a change in baseline expression of their genes. The increase in the baseline content of regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis (TFAM and NR4A3) was associated with a transient increase in transcription after acute exercise. Contrariwise, the increase in the baseline content of respiratory proteins does not seem to be regulated at the transcriptional level; rather, it is associated with other mechanisms. Adaptation of human skeletal muscle to regular aerobic exercise is associated not only with transient molecular responses to exercise, but also with changes in baseline phosphorylation and expression of regulatory proteins.

Neoteny, Prolongation of Youth: From Naked Mole Rats to "Naked Apes" (Humans).

It has been suggested that highly social mammals, such as naked mole rats and humans, are long-lived due to neoteny (the prolongation of youth). In both species, aging cannot operate as a mechanism facilitating natural selection because the pressure of this selection is strongly reduced due to 1) a specific social structure where only the "queen" and her "husband(s)" are involved in reproduction (naked mole rats) or 2) substituting fast technological progress for slow biological evolution (humans). Lists of numerous traits of youth that do not disappear with age in naked mole rats and humans are presented and discussed. A high resistance of naked mole rats to cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular and brain diseases, and many infections explains why their mortality rate is very low and almost age-independent and why their lifespan is more than 30 years, versus 3 years in mice. In young humans, curves of mortality versus age start at extremely low values. However, in the elderly, human mortality strongly increases. High mortality rates in other primates are observed at much younger ages than in humans. The inhibition of the aging process in humans by specific drugs seems to be a promising approach to prolong our healthspan. This might be a way to retard aging, which is already partially accomplished via the natural physiological phenomenon neoteny.

Methodology for use of mitochondria-targeted cations in the field of oxidative stress-related research.

For many pathological conditions, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in mitochondria are considered to have a role as a trigger. When mitochondrial ROS (mROS) are formed in the inner mitochondrial membrane, they initiate free radical-mediated chain reactions of lipid peroxidation and are thus especially damaging. The consequences of membrane damage are decreased electrical resistance of the membrane, oxidative damage to cardiolipin (a mitochondria specific lipid essential for functioning of respiratory chain proteins and H(+)-ATP synthase), and damage to mitochondrial DNA localized in close vicinity to the inner membrane, with consequent mitochondrial dysfunction and induction of apoptotic cascade and cell death. To target the starting point of such undesirable events, antioxidants conjugated with mitochondria-targeted, membrane-penetrating cations can be used to scavenge ROS inside mitochondria. The most demonstrative indications favoring this conclusion originate from recent discoveries of the in vivo effects of such cations belonging to the MitoQ and SkQ groups. Here we describe some essential methodological aspects of the application of mitochondria-targeted cations promising in treating oxidative stress-related pathologies.

The function of complexes between the outer mitochondrial membrane pore (VDAC) and the adenine nucleotide translocase in regulation of energy metabolism and apoptosis.

The outer mitochondrial membrane pore (VDAC) changes its structure either voltage-dependently in artificial membranes or physiologically by interaction with the adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT) in the c-conformation. This interaction creates contact sites and leads in addition to a specific organisation of cytochrome c in the VDAC-ANT complexes. The VDAC structure that is specific for contact sites generates a signal at the surface for several proteins in the cytosol to bind with high capacity, such as hexokinase, glycerol kinase and Bax. If the VDAC binding site is not occupied by hexokinase, the VDAC-ANT complex has two critical qualities: firstly, Bax gets access to cytochrome c and secondly the ANT is set in its c-conformation that easily changes conformation into an unspecific channel (uniporter) causing permeability transition. Activity of bound hexokinase protects against both, it hinders Bax binding and employs the ANT as anti-porter. The octamer of mitochondrial creatine kinase binds to VDAC from the inner surface of the outer membrane. This firstly restrains interaction between VDAC and ANT and secondly changes the VDAC structure into low affinity for hexokinase and Bax. Cytochrome c in the creatine kinase complex will be differently organised, not accessible to Bax and the ANT is run as anti-porter by the active creatine kinase octamer. However, when, for example, free radicals cause dissociation of the octamer, VDAC interacts with the ANT with the same results as described above: Bax-dependent cytochrome c release and risk of permeability transition pore opening.

Oligomycin, inhibitor of the F0 part of H+-ATP-synthase, suppresses the TNF-induced apoptosis.

The release of cytochrome c from the intermembrane space of mitochondria into the cytosol is one of the critical events in apoptotic cell death. In the present study, it is shown that release of cytochrome c and apoptosis induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF) in HeLa cells can be inhibited by (i) overexpression of an oncoprotein Bcl-2, (ii) Cyclosporin A, an inhibitor of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (PTP) or (iii) oligomycin, an inhibitor of H+- ATP-synthase. Staurosporine-induced apoptosis is sensitive to Bcl-2 but insensitive to Cyclosporin A and oligomycin. The effect of oligomycin is not due to changes in mitochondrial membrane potential or to inhibition of ATP synthesis/hydrolysis since (a) uncouplers (CCCP, DNP) which discharge the membrane potential fail to abolish the protective action of oligomycin and (b) aurovertin B (another inhibitor of H+-ATP-synthase, affecting its F1 component) do not affect apoptosis. A role of oligomycin-sensitive F0 component of H+-ATP-synthase in the TNF-induced PTP opening and apoptosis is suggested.