Roadmap to cellular reprogramming--manipulating transcriptional networks with DNA, RNA, proteins and small molecules.

Recent reports demonstrate that the plasticity of mammalian somatic cells is much higher than previously assumed and that ectopic expression of transcription factors may have the potential to induce the conversion of any cell type into another. Fibroblast cells can be converted into embryonic stem cell-like cells, neural cells, cardiomyocytes, macrophage-like cells as well as blood progenitors. Additionally, the conversion of astrocytes into neurons or neural stem cells into monocytes has been demonstrated. Nowadays, in the era of systems biology, continuously growing holistic data sets are providing increasing insights into core transcriptional networks and cellular signaling pathways. This knowledge enables cell biologists to understand how cellular fate is determined and how it could be manipulated. As a consequence for biomedical applications, it might be soon possible to convert patient specific somatic cells directly into desired transplantable other cell types. The clinical value, however, of such reprogrammed cells is currently limited due to the invasiveness of methods applied to induce reprogramming factor activity. This review will focus on experimental strategies to ectopically induce cell fate modulators. We will emphasize those strategies that enable efficient and robust overexpression of transcription factors by minimal genetic alterations of the host genome. Furthermore, we will discuss procedures devoid of any genomic manipulation, such as the direct delivery of mRNA, proteins, or the use of small molecules. By this, we aim to give a comprehensive overview on state of the art techniques that harbor the potential to generate safe reprogrammed cells for clinical applications.

Deletion of connexin45 in mouse neurons disrupts one-trial object recognition and alters kainate-induced gamma-oscillations in the hippocampus.

Neuronal gap junctions, allowing fast intercellular electrotonic signal transfer, have been implicated in mechanisms governing learning and memory processes. We have examined conditional neuron-directed (Cx45fl/fl:Nestin-Cre) connexin45 deficient mice in terms of behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of learning and memory. Behavioral habituation to a novel environment and motor learning were not changed in these mice. Novel object recognition after delays of up to 60min was impaired in neuronal Cx45 deficient mice. However, object-place recognition was not significantly different from controls. Analysis of enhanced green fluorescent reporter protein expression controlled by the endogenous mouse Cx45 promoter in the brain of neuronal Cx45 deficient mice suggested that Cx45 is expressed in the perirhinal cortex and the CA3 subregion of the hippocampus. The neuronal Cx45 deficient mice were also examined for aberrations in the generation and synchronization of network oscillations in the hippocampus. General excitability, synaptic short time plasticity, and spontaneous high-frequency oscillations (sharp-wave ripples) in the hippocampus were not different from controls. However, bath stimulation of hippocampal slices with kainate induced significantly lower gamma-oscillation amplitudes in the CA3, but not in the CA1 subfield of the neuronal Cx45 deficient mice. Additionally, they exhibited a significantly larger full width half maximum of the frequency distribution in the CA1 subfield as compared to the controls. In conclusion, the neuron-directed deletion of Cx45 impaired one-trial novel object recognition and altered kainate-induced gamma-oscillations possibly via the disruption of inter-neuronal gap junctional communication in the hippocampus or perirhinal cortex.