Teamwork methods for accountable care: relational coordination and TeamSTEPPS®.

BACKGROUND: To deliver greater value in the accountable care context, the Institute of Medicine argues for a culture of teamwork at multiple levels--across professional and organizational siloes and with patients and their families and communities. The logic of performance improvement is that data are needed to target interventions and to assess their impact. We argue that efforts to build teamwork will benefit from teamwork measures that provide diagnostic information regarding the current state and teamwork interventions that can respond to the opportunities identified in the current state. PURPOSE: We identify teamwork measures and teamwork interventions that are validated and that can work across multiple levels of teamwork. We propose specific ways to combine them for optimal effectiveness. APPROACH: We review measures of teamwork documented by Valentine, Nembhard, and Edmondson and select those that they identified as satisfying the four criteria for psychometric validation and as being unbounded and therefore able to measure teamwork across multiple levels. We then consider teamwork interventions that are widely used in the U.S. health care context, are well validated based on their association with outcomes, and are capable of working at multiple levels of teamwork. We select the top candidate in each category and propose ways to combine them for optimal effectiveness. FINDINGS: We find relational coordination is a validated multilevel teamwork measure and TeamSTEPPS® is a validated multilevel teamwork intervention and propose specific ways for the relational coordination measure to enhance the TeamSTEPPS intervention. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: Health care systems and change agents seeking to respond to the challenges of accountable care can use TeamSTEPPS as a validated multilevel teamwork intervention methodology, enhanced by relational coordination as a validated multilevel teamwork measure with diagnostic capacity to pinpoint opportunities for improving teamwork along specific dimensions (e.g., shared knowledge, timely communication) and in specific role relationships (e.g., nurse/medical assistant, emergency unit/medical unit, primary care/specialty care).

Substance abuse treatment organizations as mediators of social policy: slowing the adoption of a congressionally approved medication.

Most substance abuse treatment occurs in outpatient treatment centers, necessitating an understanding of what motivates organizations to adopt new treatment modalities. Tichy's framework of organizations as being comprised of three intertwined internal systems (technical, cultural, and political) was used to explain treatment organizations' slow adoption of buprenorphine, a new medication for opiate dependence. Primary data were collected from substance abuse treatment organizations in four of the ten metropolitan areas with the largest number of heroin users. Only about one fifth offered buprenorphine. All three internal systems were important determinants of buprenorphine adoption in our multivariate model. However, the cultural system, measured by attitude toward medications, was a necessary condition for adoption. Health policies designed to encourage adoption of evidence-based performance measures typically focus on the technical system of organizations. These findings suggest that such policies would be more effective if they incorporate an understanding of all three internal systems.

The relationship between Medicare's process of care quality measures and mortality.

Using Medicare inpatient claims and Hospital Compare process of care quality data from the period 2004-2006, we estimate two model specifications to test for the presence of correlational and causal relationships between hospital process of care performance measures and risk-adjusted (RA) 30-day mortality for heart attack, heart failure, and pneumonia. Our analysis indicates that while Hospital Compare process performance measures are correlated with 30-day mortality for each diagnosis, after we account for unobserved heterogeneity, process of care performance is no longer associated with mortality for any diagnosis. This suggests that the relationship between hospital-level process of care performance and mortality is not causal. Implications for pay-for-performance are discussed.

Pathways of health technology diffusion: the United States and low-income countries.

In the United States, the complex process of getting health care technologies into practice takes place in a competitive health system that is driven by technological innovation. Federal, state, and local governments' roles in the diffusion process are limited. In low-income countries, where competitive markets are not as prominent, diffusing medical innovations requires an alternative understanding of how new technologies are adopted. This paper describes how, in low-income countries, the lack of functioning markets serves as a barrier to the transfer of necessary health technologies, and why governments must act as stewards in promoting technologies there.

Does funding from donors displace government spending for health in developing countries?

The notable increases in funding from various donors for health over the past several years have made examining the effectiveness of aid all the more important. We examine the extent to which donor funding for health substitutes for--rather than complements--health financing by recipient governments. We find evidence of a strong substitution effect. The proportionate decrease in government spending associated with an increase in donor funding is largest in low-income countries. The results suggest that aid needs to be structured in a way that better aligns donors' and recipient governments' incentives, using innovative approaches such as performance-based aid financing.

Use of buprenorphine for addiction treatment: perspectives of addiction specialists and general psychiatrists.

OBJECTIVE: In 2002 buprenorphine (Suboxone or Subutex) was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for office-based treatment of opioid addiction. The goal of office-based pharmacotherapy is to bring more opiate-dependent people into treatment and to have more physicians address this problem. This study examined prescribing practices for buprenorphine, including facilitators and barriers, and the organizational settings that facilitate its being incorporated into treatment. METHODS: Addiction specialists and other psychiatrists in four market areas were surveyed by mail and Internet in fall 2005 to examine prescribing practices for buprenorphine. Respondents included 271 addiction specialists (72% response rate) and 224 psychiatrists who were not listed as addiction specialists but who had patients with addictions in their practice (57% response rate). RESULTS: Three years after approval of buprenorphine for office-based addiction treatment, nearly 90% of addiction specialists had been approved to prescribe it and two-thirds treated patients with buprenorphine. However, fewer than 10% of non-addiction specialist psychiatrists prescribed it. Regression-adjusted factors predicting prescribing of buprenorphine included support of training and use of buprenorphine by the physician's main affiliated organization, less time in general psychiatry compared with addictions treatment, more time in group practice rather than solo, ten or more opiate-dependent patients, belief that drugs play a large role in addiction treatment, and patient demand. CONCLUSIONS: Office-based pharmacotherapy offers a promising path to improved access to addictions treatment, but prescribing has expanded little beyond the addiction specialist community.

Differences in prescription drug use in HMO and self-insured health plans.

Using pharmacy benefits manager claims data, this study analyzed how cost-management techniques including cost sharing affected enrollees in health maintenance organizations (HMOs) versus employer-sponsored fee-for-service plans. Because HMOs bear the risk of pharmaceutical costs and influence the prescribing practices of the physicians in their network, we expected different patterns of prescription use, such as proportionately more generic medications in HMOs. Also, because HMO physicians are likely to prescribe relatively more drugs for high-severity conditions, HMO enrollee demand should be less price sensitive. The impact of cost sharing was found to be significantly less for HMOs. A 5-dollar increase in copayments decreased expenditures by 16 percent in fee-for-service plans but only by 1 percent in HMOs. Furthermore, when cost sharing was set at zero, HMO plans were found to have significantly fewer and cheaper medications, resulting in lower per-enrollee medication expenditures.

Factors determining how early adopter physicians use buprenorphine in treatment.

Since October 2002, physicians have been able to prescribe buprenorphine to treat opiate dependence. We examined how physicians who prescribe buprenorphine are using it in practice to determine how well buprenorphine has been adopted as a realistic and effective treatment option, with the ultimate goal of improved access to opiate addiction treatment. Most prescribing physicians offer buprenorphine in various ways, ranging from detoxification to extended maintenance, including transfer from methadone and treatment of chronic pain. On average, physicians write 16 prescriptions monthly, one-third of which are for new patients. The average buprenorphine prescriber has treated 72 buprenorphine patients to date. Two-thirds prescribe for both detoxification and maintenance, allowing flexibility to meet patient needs; 19% prescribe only for detoxification, and 14% only for maintenance. Prescribing patterns are associated with experience treating addictions, patient mix, and available resources. Physicians who prescribe for detoxification only should recognize that additional resources are not necessary for maintenance, the recommended treatment for opiate addiction. Physicians who prescribe for maintenance only would benefit from linkages with physicians or facilities that offer buprenorphine detoxification, so patients who refuse maintenance may still be treated. With additional network development and support for physicians, access to buprenorphine treatment can be improved.

How do seniors use their prescription drug discount cards?

This study examines how seniors enrolled in a major national prescription drug discount program used their cards in the year before the Medicare discount card program's implementation, to establish baseline information. Seniors who actively enrolled relied heavily on the card for their purchases. They saved 20 percent overall but still spent more than dollar 1,300 annually on prescriptions, on average. Fewer than half of those who were automatically enrolled as a free Medigap benefit used the card. This suggests that some had other options or that more effort is needed to assure that seniors understand the value of drug savings programs and how to use them.

Health plans' strategies to control prescription drug spending.

A number of recent studies have documented the sizable impact of consumer cost sharing without accounting for the other drug management strategies being adopted simultaneously. This qualitative case study of five of California's largest health plans examines the strategies and methods used to control prescription drug use and spending. Higher cost sharing is being used increasingly. Concurrently, major administrative efforts directed at physicians-including rules, incentives, and education-are being undertaken. These efforts have focused on lowering the cost per prescription by emphasizing generic substitution and therapeutic interchange of less costly drugs.

Realigning incentives in fee-for-service Medicare.

This paper proposes Medicare payment reform built on the fee-for-service system, with incentive payments to eligible provider organizations determined by their rate of increase in cost per patient compared to the overall growth rate in the community. By planning and monitoring how care patterns are altered to achieve greater efficiency, policy-makers can align the incentives of Medicare and the provider organization better than using either fee-for-service or capitation alone. This reform, unlike capitation, maintains Medicare's historical role as insurer and focuses providers on managing care.

Research to practice: adoption of naltrexone in alcoholism treatment.

Naltrexone, a prescription medication, was approved in December 1994 as an adjunct to counseling in treatment of alcoholism and alcohol abuse, representing the first new medication for alcoholism in several decades. Initial controlled trials indicated that it is effective in preventing relapse, while later trials show mixed results. Although many physicians and others treating alcoholism have found naltrexone to be very helpful in treatment, it is still a technology that has not been used widely. In this study, we examine which clinicians have adopted naltrexone into practice for what reasons, and what clinical and nonclinical factors acted as barriers to its use. In our mail survey of alcoholism treatment clinicians, 80% of physicians and 45% of nonphysicians report prescribing or recommending naltrexone at least rarely, but only 15% of physicians, even among addiction specialists, prescribe naltrexone often. The strongest barriers to adoption of naltrexone were financing and inadequate knowledge about the medication, followed by lack of sufficient evidence regarding effectiveness. Clinicians were most likely to adopt naltrexone if they were affiliated with treatment programs that actively promoted its use. We conclude that in order for a new substance abuse treatment medication to be widely adopted in clinical practice, information about it must be properly directed, clinicians must be convinced of its effectiveness, it must be adequately financed, and the treatment organizations in which clinicians work must promote its use.

Impact of health plan design and management on retirees' prescription drug use and spending, 2001.

We examined 2001 prescription drug claims for a range of employer-based retiree plans administered by a national pharmacy benefit management firm, to understand how use and spending differ with various cost-sharing approaches and other drug use management techniques among the elderly. In these plans, most of which had generous benefits and substantial use of mail order, more aggressive cost-sharing requirements combined with other management strategies were associated with greater member cost sharing, a shift to less costly medications (generic and mail order), and lower total prescription drug spending. Although we did not find lower rates of use in plans with aggressive cost sharing, this may be attributable in part to their higher drug use associated with mail-order incentives.

An examination of factors in the withdrawal of managed care plans from the Medicare+Choice program.

Participation of health maintenance organizations (HMOs) in the Medicare+Choice program, expected to rise rapidly after passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997, has gone in just the opposite direction. Because plans have left in such large numbers, Congress has taken remedial measures to remove restrictions and increase payments. To date these efforts have failed. This paper uses plan organizational characteristics, market position, and financial performance to quantify the reasons why some HMOs exited at the end of 1998. The findings suggest HMO participation in Medicare+Choice will continue to fall unless major changes are made to the overall Medicare program and the method of paying HMOs.

Managed care: Practice, pitfalls, and potential.

The results of coordinating and changing patterns of health care using managed care activities and organizations are reviewed in this article. Although utilization review and high-cost case management programs reduce the use of expensive services, incentives for providers of care, placing them at risk, are important for managing the intensity of health care. Managed care appears capable of reducing health care costs substantially. However, this increased efficiency has not translated to lower insurance premiums or modulated total health care expenditures because either purchasers are not aware or are not concerned about securing care at the least cost. To correct these deficiencies and deliver the potential of managed care, the author suggests the need to separate insurance into its three components parts (financing, risk spreading, and program management) and developed policies for each.