Proteomic profiling of TBC1 domain family member 21-null sperms reveals the critical roles of TEKT 1 in their tail defects.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 7% of the males exhibit reduced fertility; however, the regulatory genes and pathways involved remain largely unknown. TBC1 domain family member 21 (TBC1D21) contains a conserved RabGAP catalytic domain that induces GDP/GTP exchange to inactivate Rabs by interacting with microtubules. We previously reported that Tbc1d21-null mice exhibit severe sperm tail defects with a disrupted axoneme, and that TBC1D21 interacts with RAB10. However, the pathological mechanisms underlying the Tbc1d21 loss-induced sperm tail defects remain unknown. RESULTS: Murine sperm from wild-type and Tbc1d21-null mice were comparatively analyzed using proteomic assays. Over 1600 proteins were identified, of which 15 were significantly up-regulated in Tbc1d21-null sperm. Notably, several tektin (TEKT) family proteins, belonging to a type of intermediate filament critical for stabilizing the microtubular structure of cilia and flagella, were significantly up-regulated in Tbc1d21-/- sperm. We also found that TBC1D21 interacts with TEKT1. In addition, TEKT1 co-localized with RAB10 during sperm tail formation. Finally, we found Tbc1d21-null sperm exhibited abnormal accumulation of TEKT1 in the midpiece region, accompanied by disrupted axonemal structures. CONCLUSIONS: These results reveal that TBC1D21 modulates TEKTs protein localization in the axonemal transport system during sperm tail formation.

Ucp4 Knockdown of Cerebellar Purkinje Cells Induces Bradykinesia.

Although uncoupling protein 4 (UCP4) is the most abundant protein reported in the brain, the biological function of UCP4 in cerebellum and pathological outcome of UCP4 deficiency in cerebellum remain obscure. To evaluate the role of Ucp4 in the cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs), we generated the conditional knockdown of Ucp4 in PCs (Pcp2cre;Ucp4fl/fl mice) by breeding Ucp4fl/fl mice with Pcp2cre mice. Series results by Western blot, immunofluorescent staining, and triple RNAscope in situ hybridization confirmed the specific ablation of Ucp4 in PCs in Pcp2cre;Ucp4fl/fl mice, but did not affect the expression of Ucp2, the analog of Ucp4. Combined behavioral tests showed that Pcp2cre;Ucp4fl/fl mice displayed a characteristic bradykinesia in the spontaneous movements. The electromyogram recordings detection excluded the possibility of hypotonia in Pcp2cre;Ucp4fl/fl mice. And the electrical patch clamp recordings showed the altered properties of PCs in Pcp2cre;Ucp4fl/fl mice. Moreover, transmission electron microscope (TEM) results showed the increased mitochondrial circularity in PCs; ROS probe imaging showed the increased ROS generation in molecular layer; and finally, microplate reader assay showed the significant changes of mitochondrial functions, including ROS, ATP, and MMP in the isolated cerebellum tissue. The results suggested that the specific knockdown of mitochondrial protein Ucp4 could damage PCs possibly by attacking their mitochondrial function. The present study is the first to report a close relationship between UCP4 deletion with PCs impairment, and suggests the importance of UCP4 in the substantial support of mitochondrial function homeostasis in bradykinesia. UCP4 might be a therapeutic target for the cerebellar-related movement disorder.

Deleterious genetic changes in AGTPBP1 result in teratozoospermia with sperm head and flagella defects.

Approximately 10%-15% of couples worldwide are infertile, and male factors account for approximately half of these cases. Teratozoospermia is a major cause of male infertility. Although various mutations have been identified in teratozoospermia, these can vary among ethnic groups. In this study, we performed whole-exome sequencing to identify genetic changes potentially causative of teratozoospermia. Out of seven genes identified, one, ATP/GTP Binding Protein 1 (AGTPBP1), was characterized, and three missense changes were identified in two patients (Affected A: p.Glu423Asp and p.Pro631Leu; Affected B: p.Arg811His). In those two cases, severe sperm head and tail defects were observed. Moreover, AGTPBP1 localization showed a fragmented pattern compared to control participants, with specific localization in the neck and annulus regions. Using murine models, we found that AGTPBP1 is localized in the manchette structure, which is essential for sperm structure formation. Additionally, in Agtpbp1-null mice, we observed sperm head and tail defects similar to those in sperm from AGTPBP1-mutated cases, along with abnormal polyglutamylation tubulin and decreasing △-2 tubulin levels. In this study, we established a link between genetic changes in AGTPBP1 and human teratozoospermia for the first time and identified the role of AGTPBP1 in deglutamination, which is crucial for sperm formation.

Decreased Klotho Expression Causes Accelerated Decline of Male Fecundity through Oxidative Injury in Murine Testis.

Oxidative stress is the etiology for 30-80% of male patients affected by infertility, which is a major health problem worldwide. Klotho protein is an aging suppressor that functions as a humoral factor modulating various cellular processes including antioxidation and anti-inflammation, and its dysregulation leads to human pathologies. Male mice lacking Klotho are sterile, and decreased Klotho levels in the serum are observed in men suffering from infertility with lower sperm counts. However, the mechanism by which Klotho maintains healthy male fertility remains unclear. Klotho haplodeficiency (Kl+/-) accelerates fertility reduction by impairing sperm quality and spermatogenesis in Kl+/- mice. Testicular proteomic analysis revealed that loss of Klotho predominantly disturbed oxidation and the glutathione-related pathway. We further focused on the glutathione-S-transferase (GST) family which counteracts oxidative stress in most cell types and closely relates with fertility. Several GST proteins, including GSTP1, GSTO2, and GSTK1, were significantly downregulated, which subsequently resulted in increased levels of the lipid peroxidation product 4-hydroxynonenal and apoptosis in murine testis with low or no expression of Klotho. Taken together, the loss of one Kl allele accelerates male fecundity loss because diminished antioxidant capability induces oxidative injury in mice. This is the first study that highlights a connection between Klotho and GST proteins.

[Interpretation of the key updates in the 2022 European guideline on the management of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome]. / 2022年欧洲新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征管理指南更新要点解读.

With the deepening of clinical research, the management of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) needs to be optimized and improved. This article aims to introduce the 2022 European guideline on the management of neonatal RDS, focusing on its key updates. The guide has optimized the management of risk prediction for preterm birth, maternal referral, application of prenatal corticosteroids, application of lung protective ventilation strategies, and general care for infants with RDS. The guideline is mainly applicable to the management of RDS in neonates with gestational age greater than 24 weeks.

Meshed neuronal mitochondrial networks empowered by AI-powered classifiers and immersive VR reconstruction.

Mitochondrial networks are defined as a continuous matrix lumen, but the morphological feature of neuronal mitochondrial networks is not clear due to the lack of suitable analysis techniques. The aim of the present study is to develop a framework to capture and analyze the neuronal mitochondrial networks by using 4-step process composed of 2D and 3D observation, primary and secondary virtual reality (VR) analysis, with the help of artificial intelligence (AI)-powered Aivia segmentation an classifiers. In order to fulfill this purpose, we first generated the PCs-Mito-GFP mice, in which green fluorescence protein (GFP) could be expressed on the outer mitochondrial membrane specifically on the cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs), thus all mitochondria in the giant neuronal soma, complex dendritic arborization trees and long projection axons of Purkinje cells could be easily detected under a laser scanning confocal microscope. The 4-step process resolved the complicated neuronal mitochondrial networks into discrete neuronal mitochondrial meshes. Second, we measured the two parameters of the neuronal mitochondrial meshes, and the results showed that the surface area (µm2) of mitochondrial meshes was the biggest in dendritic trees (45.30 ± 53.21), the smallest in granular-like axons (3.99 ± 1.82), and moderate in soma (27.81 ± 22.22) and silk-like axons (17.50 ± 15.19). These values showed statistically different among different subcellular locations. The volume (µm3) of mitochondrial meshes was the biggest in dendritic trees (9.97 ± 12.34), the smallest in granular-like axons (0.43 ± 0.25), and moderate in soma (6.26 ± 6.46) and silk-like axons (3.52 ± 4.29). These values showed significantly different among different subcellular locations. Finally, we found both the surface area and the volume of mitochondrial meshes in dendritic trees and soma within the Purkinje cells in PCs-Mito-GFP mice after receiving the training with the simulating long-term pilot flight concentrating increased significantly. The precise reconstruction of neuronal mitochondrial networks is extremely laborious, the present 4-step workflow powered by artificial intelligence and virtual reality reconstruction could successfully address these challenges.

Localization Patterns of RAB3C Are Associated with Murine and Human Sperm Formation.

Background and Objectives: Septins (SEPTs) are highly conserved GTP-binding proteins and the fourth component of the cytoskeleton. Polymerization of SEPTs contributes to several critical cellular processes such as cytokinesis, cytoskeletal remodeling, and vesicle transportation. In our previous study, we found that SEPT14 mutations resulted in teratozoospermia with >87% sperm morphological defects. SEPT14 interactors were also identified through proteomic assays, and one of the peptides was mapped to RAB3B and RAB3C. Most studies on the RAB3 family have focused on RAB3A, which regulates the exocytosis of neurotransmitters and acrosome reactions. However, the general expression and patterns of the RAB3 family members during human spermatogenesis, and the association between RAB3 and teratozoospermia owing to a SEPT14 mutation, are largely unknown. Materials and Methods: Human sperm and murine male germ cells were collected in this study and immunofluorescence analysis was applied on the collected sperm. Results: In this study, we observed that the RAB3C transcripts were more abundant than those of RAB3A, 3B, and 3D in human testicular tissues. During human spermatogenesis, the RAB3C protein is mainly enriched in elongated spermatids, and RAB3B is undetectable. In mature human spermatozoa, RAB3C is concentrated in the postacrosomal region, neck, and midpiece. The RAB3C signals were delocalized within human spermatozoa harboring the SEPT14 mutation, and the decreased signals were accompanied by a defective head and tail, compared with the healthy controls. To determine whether RAB3C is involved in the morphological formation of the head and tail of the sperm, we separated murine testicular tissue and isolated elongated spermatids for further study. We found that RAB3C is particularly expressed in the manchette structure, which assists sperm head shaping at the spermatid head, and is also localized at the sperm tail. Conclusions: Based on these results, we suggest that the localization of RAB3C proteins in murine and human sperm is associated with SEPT14 mutation-induced morphological defects in sperm.

Targeted up-regulation of Drp1 in dorsal horn attenuates neuropathic pain hypersensitivity by increasing mitochondrial fission.

Mitochondria play an essential role in pathophysiology of both inflammatory and neuropathic pain (NP), but the mechanisms are not yet clear. Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) is broadly expressed in the central nervous system and plays a role in the induction of mitochondrial fission process. Spared nerve injury (SNI), due to the dysfunction of the neurons within the spinal dorsal horn (SDH), is the most common NP model. We explored the neuroprotective role of Drp1 within SDH in SNI. SNI mice showed pain behavior and anxiety-like behavior, which was associated with elevation of Drp1, as well as increased density of mitochondria in SDH. Ultrastructural analysis showed SNI induced damaged mitochondria into smaller perimeter and area, tending to be circular. Characteristics of vacuole in the mitochondria further showed SNI induced the increased number of vacuole, widened vac-perimeter and vac-area. Stable overexpression of Drp1 via AAV under the control of the Drp1 promoter by intraspinal injection (Drp1 OE) attenuated abnormal gait and alleviated pain hypersensitivity of SNI mice. Mitochondrial ultrastructure analysis showed that the increased density of mitochondria induced by SNI was recovered by Drp1 OE which, however, did not change mitochondrial morphology and vacuole parameters within SDH. Contrary to Drp1 OE, down-regulation of Drp1 in the SDH by AAV-Drp1 shRNA (Drp1 RNAi) did not alter painful behavior induced by SNI. Ultrastructural analysis showed the treatment by combination of SNI and Drp1 RNAi (SNI + Drp1 RNAi) amplified the damages of mitochondria with the decreased distribution density, increased perimeter and area, as well as larger circularity tending to be more circular. Vacuole data showed SNI + Drp1 RNAi increased vacuole density, perimeter and area within the SDH mitochondria. Our results illustrate that mitochondria within the SDH are sensitive to NP, and targeted mitochondrial Drp1 overexpression attenuates pain hypersensitivity. Drp1 offers a novel therapeutic target for pain treatment.

[Factors Related to Successful Ventilator Weaning in Respiratory Care Center Patients: A Retrospective Chart Review Study].

BACKGROUND: The subacute respiratory care unit is an important relay station where respirator-dependent patients may access subsequent chronic respiratory care. Although there is relatively little information in the literature regarding respirator disconnections in subacute respiratory care units, assisting patients to disconnect successfully from respirators is a primary challenge for care teams. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to understand respirator disconnections and the factors affecting these events in subacute respiratory care units to improve the effectiveness of ventilator weaning and reduce the burden on families and medical care providers. METHODS: This was a retrospective chart review study. Patients admitted to the subacute respiratory care unit for respiratory training during the study period from January 2016 to December 2019 were recruited as subjects and the data were collected from the Chang Gung Medical Research Database`s health insurance secondary data using a self-made transcription form. RESULTS: The ventilator weaning success rate of the subjects in this study was 78.5%. A bivariate analysis revealed that consciousness status; disease severity; rapid shallow breathing index; days of hospitalization in a respiratory care center; days of ventilator use; blood urea nitrogen, white blood cell, hemoglobin, and blood albumin levels; and mean caloric intake were each significantly associated with successful ventilator withdrawal. The predictors of ventilator weaning in respiratory care center patients were identified as disease severity, rapid shallow breathing index, days of ventilator use, white blood cell level, and hemoglobin level. CONCLUSIONS / IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Respirator-dependent patients should be evaluated and monitored as early as possible. Moreover, a ventilator weaning plan should be included as a regular testing and monitoring item. Also, a respirator removal program should be provided on a case-by-case basis. Individualized ventilator weaning programs may reduce the burden on families and medical care providers.

Outcome-based student assessment enhances academic performance in basic medical laboratory course.

Basic medical laboratory courses (BMLCs) play an important role in medical educational courses helping the student acquire three important skills of surgical operating, collaborative learning, and problem solving. The outcome-based student assessment (OBSA) is a learning evaluation method that establishes specific evaluation points based on performance of students in three aspects: surgical operating, collaborative learning, and problem solving in the BMLC curriculum practices. The purpose of the present randomized controlled trial study is to explore the efficiency of OBSA program in BMLCs. The 233 students attending BMLCs were randomly divided into 2 groups, 118 in the OBSA group and 115 in the control group. We conducted multiple-choice examination questions (MCQs) test and two questionnaires with the method of two-sample t test for statistics. The results of MCQs in total eight BMLC blocks showed that the academic performance of the OBSA group was significantly better than that of the control group (P < 0.05). In addition, the average scores of direct observation of procedural skills (DOPS) and mini-experimental evaluation exercise in OBSA group were significantly higher than those in control group (P < 0.05). The majority of the medical students preferred the OBSA and considered OBSA could effectively improve their surgical operating skills (83.9%), collaborative learning skills (92.1%), and problem-solving skills (91.1%). From the above, OBSA is an effective evaluation method for the implementation of the BMLC curriculum.

Analgesic Effect of Noninvasive Brain Stimulation for Neuropathic Pain Patients: A Systematic Review.

INTRODUCTION: The objective of this review is to systematically summarize the consensus on best practices for different NP conditions of the two most commonly utilized noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) technologies, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). METHODS: PubMed was searched according to the predetermined keywords and criteria. Only English language studies and studies published up to January 31, 2020 were taken into consideration. Meta-analyses, reviews, and systematic reviews were excluded first, and those related to animal studies or involving healthy volunteers were also excluded. Finally, 29 studies covering 826 NP patients were reviewed. RESULTS: The results from the 24 enrolled studies and 736 NP patients indicate that rTMS successfully relieved the pain symptoms of 715 (97.1%) NP patients. Also, five studies involving 95 NP patients (81.4%) also showed that tDCS successfully relieved NP. In the included studied, the M1 region plays a key role in the analgesic treatment of NIBS. The motor evoked potentials (MEPs), the 10-20 electroencephalography system (EEG 10/20 system), and neuro-navigation methods are used in clinical practice to locate therapeutic targets. Based on the results of the review, the stimulation parameters of rTMS that best induce an analgesic effect are a stimulation frequency of 10-20 Hz, a stimulation intensity of 80-120% of RMT, 1000-2000 pulses, and 5-10 sessions, and the most effective parameters of tDCS are a current intensity of 2 mA, a session duration of 20-30 min, and 5-10 sessions. CONCLUSIONS: Our systematically reviewed the evidence for positive and negative responses to rTMS and tDCS for NP patient care and underscores the analgesic efficacy of NIBS in patients with NP. The treatment of NP should allow the design of optimal treatments for individual patients.

Benefit of a single simulated hypobaric hypoxia in healthy mice performance and analysis of mitochondria-related gene changes.

Simulated hypobaric hypoxia (SHH) training has been used to enhance running performance. However, no studies have evaluated the effects of a single SHH exposure on healthy mice performance and analyzed the changes of mitochondria-related genes in the central nervous system. The current study used a mouse decompression chamber to simulate mild hypobaric hypoxia at the high altitude of 5000 m or severe hypobaric hypoxia at 8000 m for 16 h (SHH5000 & SHH8000, respectively). Then, the mouse behavioral tests were recorded by a modified Noldus video tracking. Third, the effects of SHH on 8 mitochondria-related genes of Drp1, Mfn1, Mfn2, Opa1, TFAM, SGK1, UCP2 and UCP4, were assessed in cerebellum, hippocampus and gastrocnemius muscles. The results have shown that a single mild or severe HH improves healthy mice performance. In cerebellum, 6 of all 8 detected genes (except Mfn2 and UCP4) did not change after SHH. In hippocampus, all detected genes did not change after SHH. In muscles, 7 of all 8 detected genes (except Opa1) did not change after SHH. The present study has indicated the benefit of a single SHH in healthy mice performance, which would due to the stabilized mitochondria against a mild stress state.

ACTN4 Mediates SEPT14 Mutation-Induced Sperm Head Defects.

Septins (SEPTs) are highly conserved GTP-binding proteins and the fourth component of the cytoskeleton. Polymerized SEPTs participate in the modulation of various cellular processes, such as cytokinesis, cell polarity, and membrane dynamics, through their interactions with microtubules, actin, and other cellular components. The main objective of this study was to dissect the molecular pathological mechanism of SEPT14 mutation-induced sperm head defects. To identify SEPT14 interactors, co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) and nano-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry were applied. Immunostaining showed that SEPT14 was significantly localized to the manchette structure. The SEPT14 interactors were identified and classified as (1) SEPT-, (2) microtubule-, (3) actin-, and (4) sperm structure-related proteins. One interactor, ACTN4, an actin-holding protein, was selected for further study. Co-IP experiments showed that SEPT14 interacts with ACTN4 in a male germ cell line. SEPT14 also co-localized with ACTN4 in the perinuclear and manchette regions of the sperm head in early elongating spermatids. In the cell model, mutated SEPT14 disturbed the localization pattern of ACTN4. In a clinical aspect, sperm with mutant SEPT14, SEPT14A123T (p.Ala123Thr), and SEPT14I333T (p.Ile333Thr), have mislocalized and fragmented ACTN4 signals. Sperm head defects in donors with SEPT14 mutations are caused by disruption of the functions of ACTN4 and actin during sperm head formation.

Resveratrol Modulates the Gut Microbiota and Inflammation to Protect Against Diabetic Nephropathy in Mice.

Oral administration of resveratrol is able to ameliorate the progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN); however, its mechanisms of action remain unclear. Recent evidence suggested that the gut microbiota is involved in the metabolism therapeutics. In the current study, we sought to determine whether the anti-DN effects of resveratrol are mediated through modulation of the gut microbiota using the genetic db/db mouse model of DN. We demonstrate that resveratrol treatment of db/db mice relieves a series of clinical indicators of DN. We then show that resveratrol improves intestinal barrier function and ameliorates intestinal permeability and inflammation. The composition of the gut microbiome was significantly altered in db/db mice compared to control db/m mice. Dysbiosis in db/db mice characterized by low abundance levels of Bacteroides, Alistipes, Rikenella, Odoribacter, Parabacteroides, and Alloprevotella genera were reversed by resveratrol treatment, suggesting a potential role for the microbiome in DN progression. Furthermore, fecal microbiota transplantation, derived from healthy resveratrol-treated db/m mice, was sufficient to antagonize the renal dysfunction, rebalance the gut microbiome and improve intestinal permeability and inflammation in recipient db/db mice. These results indicate that resveratrol-mediated changes in the gut microbiome may play an important role in the mechanism of action of resveratrol, which provides supporting evidence for the gut-kidney axis in DN.

Deficiency of the Tbc1d21 gene causes male infertility with morphological abnormalities of the sperm mitochondria and flagellum in mice.

Approximately 2-15% of couples experience infertility, and around half of these cases are attributed to male infertility. We previously identified TBC1D21 as a sterility-related RabGAP gene derived from infertile men. However, the in vivo function of TBC1D21 in male fertility remains unclear. Here, we show that loss of Tbc1d21 in mice resulted in male infertility, characterized by defects in sperm tail structure and diminished sperm motility. The mitochondria of the sperm-tail had an abnormal irregular arrangement, abnormal diameter, and structural defects. Moreover, the axoneme structure of sperm tails was severely disturbed. Several TBC1D21 interactors were selected via proteomic analysis and functional grouping. Two of the candidate interactors, a subunit protein of translocase in the outer membrane of mitochondria (TOMM20) and an inner arm component of the sperm tail axoneme (Dynein Heavy chain 7, DNAH7), confirmed in vivo physical co-localization with TBC1D21. In addition, TOMM20 and DNAH7 detached and dispersed outside the axoneme in Tbc1d21-deficient sperm, instead of aligning with the axoneme. From a clinical perspective, the transcript levels of TBC1D21 in sperm from teratozoospermia cases were significantly reduced when compared with those in normozoospermia. We concluded that TBC1D21 is critical for mitochondrial and axoneme development of mammalian sperm.

Glucosinolate Transporter1 involves in salt-induced jasmonate signaling and alleviates the repression of lateral root growth by salt in Arabidopsis.

Salt stress has negative impact on plant development and growth. Jasmonic acid (JA), a phytohormone, has been shown to involve in salt-induced inhibition of primary root growth. The Arabidopsis Glucosinolate transporter1 (GTR1/NPF2.10) is characterized as a JA-Ile, a bioactive form of JA, transporter. However, whether GTR1 participates in salt responses is not clear. In this study, we confirmed that GTR1 is induced by both JA and salinity. Salt-induced JA signaling is affected in gtr1 mutant. The JA responsive genes, JAZ1, JAZ5, MYC2, LOX3, are down-regulated in gtr1 mutant. Phenotypic analyses showed that the salinity-induced lateral root growth inhibition is enhanced in gtr1 mutant, suggesting that GTR1 plays a positive role in lateral root development under salt stress. Interestingly, the expression of a Na+ transporter, HKT1, is upregulated in gtr1. Since HKT1 is a negative regulator for lateral root development under salt stress, we proposed that GTR1 alleviates the repression of lateral root development by salt stress by mediating JA signaling and repressing HKT1 expression. This study demonstrates that GTR1 is the molecular link between salt stress, JA signaling, and lateral root development.

Drp1 is widely, yet heterogeneously, distributed in the mouse central nervous system.

OBJECTIVES: Drp1 is widely expressed in the mouse central nervous system and plays a role in inducing the mitochondrial fission process. Many diseases are associated with Drp1 and mitochondria. However, since the exact distribution of Drp1 has not been specifically observed, it is difficult to determine the impact of anti-Drp1 molecules on the human body. Clarifying the specific Drp1 distribution could be a good approach to targeted treatment or prognosis. METHODS: We visualized the distribution of Drp1 in different brain regions and explicated the relationship between Drp1 and mitochondria. GAD67-GFP knock-in mice were utilized to detect the expression patterns of Drp1 in GABAergic neurons. We also further analyzed Drp1 expression in human malignant glioma tissue. RESULTS: Drp1 was widely but heterogeneously distributed in the central nervous system. Further observation indicated that Drp1 was highly and heterogeneously expressed in inhibitory neurons. Under transmission electron microscopy, the distribution of Drp1 was higher in dendrites than other areas in neurons, and only a small amount of Drp1 was localized in mitochondria. In human malignant glioma, the fluorescence intensity of Drp1 increased from grade I-III, while grade IV showed a declining trend. CONCLUSION: In this study, we observed a wide heterogeneous distribution of Drp1 in the central nervous system, which might be related to the occurrence and development of neurologic disease. We hope that the relationship between Drp1 and mitochondria may will to therapeutic guidance in the clinic.

Flowering Phenology Shifts in Response to Functional Traits, Growth Form, and Phylogeny of Woody Species in a Desert Area.

Climatic factors are considered the major driving forces for variation of flowering phenology among species. Yet, whether flowering phenology of woody species varies with functional traits, growth form, and phylogeny in arid regions is unknown. In the present study, we evaluated the relationships of three characteristics of flowering phenology (i.e., first flowering date, end of flowering date, and flowering duration) against functional traits, growth form, and phylogeny across 59 woody plant species across 3 years in Ürümqi city of the Xinjiang Autonomous Region, in Northwest China. The results showed that, plant functional traits and growth form had significant influences on the variability of flowering phenology among species. The contributions of fruit type (34.7-43.5%) and flower color (30.1-30.7%) to the variability of flowering phenology were larger than those of pollination mode (4.6-14.4%), life form (8.4-14%) and maximum plant height (9.7-13.1%). Trees had the significant correlations in terms of flowering duration against first flowering date and end of flowering date, while shrubs showed the opposite pattern. The values of phylogenetic signal (Blomberg's K) of the three characteristics of flowering phenology ranged from 0.36 to 0.43, which were significantly lower than the expectation of the Brownian motion model. Our results suggested that functional traits, growth form and phylogeny all affected variability of flowering phenology among species. Our results provide a new perspective for correctly evaluating the relationship between global climate change and plant reproduction.

STRESS INDUCED FACTOR 2 Regulates Arabidopsis Stomatal Immunity through Phosphorylation of the Anion Channel SLAC1.

Upon recognition of microbes, pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) activate pattern-triggered immunity. FLAGELLIN SENSING2 (FLS2) and BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1-ASSOCIATED KINASE1 (BAK1) form a typical PRR complex that senses bacteria. Here, we report that the kinase activity of the malectin-like receptor-like kinase STRESS INDUCED FACTOR 2 (SIF2) is critical for Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) resistance to bacteria by regulating stomatal immunity. SIF2 physically associates with the FLS2-BAK1 PRR complex and interacts with and phosphorylates the guard cell SLOW ANION CHANNEL1 (SLAC1), which is necessary for abscisic acid (ABA)-mediated stomatal closure. SIF2 is also required for the activation of ABA-induced S-type anion currents in Arabidopsis protoplasts, and SIF2 is sufficient to activate SLAC1 anion channels in Xenopus oocytes. SIF2-mediated activation of SLAC1 depends on specific phosphorylation of Ser 65. This work reveals that SIF2 functions between the FLS2-BAK1 initial immunity receptor complex and the final actuator SLAC1 in stomatal immunity.