Association between Head-to-Chest Circumference Ratio and Intrauterine Growth-Retardation Related Outcomes during Preweaning and Postweaning.

The objective of this study is to evaluate the association between the head-to-chest circumference ratio (HCR) and birth weight (BW), colostrum intake, and average daily weight gain (ADG) at preweaning and postweaning periods. Additionally, associations between HCR and PCV-2 serum antibody titers and the PCV-2 seroconversion ratio (SCR) were assessed. Head and chest circumferences were measured at birth, and HCR was calculated from 110 piglets born from 8 pregnant sows randomly selected from maternity pens. Linear mixed models were used to test whether changes in HCR were associated with fluctuations of BW, colostrum intake, and ADG. In addition, HCR least-square means were compared between piglets classified as lower or greater BW, colostrum intake, and ADG. Finally, receiving operating characteristic curve analyses were performed to estimate HCR thresholds for discriminating between lower and greater performance piglets during preweaning and postweaning periods. Increments in HCR were associated with lower BW, colostrum intake, and ADG. An HCR threshold of 0.82 maximized sensibility and specificity for the classification of lower and greater performance piglets regarding BW, colostrum intake, and ADG during the periods of 0 to 7 and 0 to 69 days of life. When piglets were categorized into HCR ≤ 0.82 and HCR > 0.82 groups, piglets with HCR ≤ 0.82 had lower (log10) PCV-2 serum antibody titers at 26 days of life compared with piglets with HCR > 0.82 (3.30 ± 0.05 vs. 3.47 ± 0.05 g/dL). On the other hand, piglets that showed low SCR between 26 and 69 days of life had greater HCRs compared with piglets with high SCRs (0.83 ± 0.008 vs. 0.8 ± 0.008). The use of HCRs allowed us to identify piglets with lower performance and impaired immune response against PCV-2. The HCR indicator could be used as a selection criterion for preventive management for piglets showing delayed performance potentially associated with IUGR.

Impact of Peste des petits ruminants for sub-Saharan African farmers: A bioeconomic household production model.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), a contagious viral disease affecting small ruminants, has been targeted by the global community for eradication within the next 10 years. However, eradication will require substantial money, human resources, coordination among actors, and individual commitments. The objective was to estimate the cost of PPR at a household level, thereby providing information on the potential economic benefits of PPR eradication and the incentives for small ruminant keepers to actively participate in the PPR Global Eradication Programme. This study focused on four sub-Saharan countries: Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali and Rwanda. Publicly available household level data assembled by FAO were used. A bioeconomic model was built to estimate impacts of PPR for a standardized theoretical area, where each household raised an average small ruminant herd or flock. Model outputs were used to estimate, at a household level, income loss due to a PPR outbreak. We constructed various income scenarios to account for the variability of small ruminant income as a proportion of total household annual income. Household income losses ranged from 2% to 40% of total annual income; percentages varied depending on the income scenario and on the gross annual economic impact of PPR on small ruminant production, which ranged from 20% to 80%, based on results of the bioeconomic model. As expected, the more small ruminant production contributed to household income the greater the impact. Estimates provided herein warn decision makers that, given the heterogeneous impact of PPR on household income, the willingness of small ruminant decision makers to participate in the PPR Global Eradication Programme may vary widely and tailored approaches should be devised and implemented.

A case of eagle fern (Pteridium aquilinum) poisoning on a pig farm.

BACKGROUND: Free-range pig farming represents a minor proportion of pig production in France but is attracting an increasing number of farmers because of societal expectations and the opportunity to use pasture-grazed forage. However, this type of farming faces several challenges, including biosecurity, parasitic management, and contact with wild fauna and pathogenic flora. CASE PRESENTATION: Two Gascon pigs raised on an outdoor fattening farm in the Hautes-Pyrenees department of France were submitted after sudden death for necropsy at the National Veterinary School of Toulouse. The pigs were of two different breeds but from the same group of 85 animals that had grazed on a 4-ha plot of land being used for grazing for the first time. Based on an in-depth interview with the farmer, the epidemiological information available, and the necropsy and histology examinations, a hypothesis of great eagle fern intoxication was proposed. Although the sample of animals available for diagnosis was small, the success of the administered therapy confirmed our diagnosis. It was recommended that in the short term, the animals be prevented access to the eagle fern by changing their pasture or removing the plants. Vitamin B1 and vitamin B6 were administered via feed as Ultra B® at 1 mL per 10 kg body weight per day for 2 days (providing 9 mg thiamine (vitamin B1) and 0.66 mg pyridoxine (vitamin B6) per kg body weight per day). Marked remission was observed, with 6 of 10 intoxicated animals with symptoms surviving (yielding a therapeutic success rate over 50%), but the therapy did not compensate for the loss of initial body condition. In total, of the 85 animals in the group after intoxication, 6 died, and 6 recovered. CONCLUSIONS: The significance of this report lies in the scarcity of eagle fern intoxication cases reported in the literature, though such intoxication may become a significant problem as the development of outdoor rearing continues. Thus, eagle fern intoxication should be included in the differential diagnosis of nervous system symptoms in swine. The case also emphasizes the importance of anamnesis and discussion with the farmer as an essential step to guide diagnosis.

Perception of Drug Vendors and Pig and Poultry Farmers of Imerintsiatosika, in Madagascar, Toward Risks Related to Antibiotic Usage: A Q-Method Approach.

Antimicrobial resistance is a One Health issue that must be tackled worldwide. In order to implement effective communication strategies in Madagascar, a better understanding must be gained of practices and perceptions related to antimicrobial use at the smallholder farm level. Our study used a semi-qualitative approach, called Q methodology, to identify patterns of opinion on antimicrobial use, or its alternatives, among pig and poultry smallholders and drug vendors in the commune of Imerintsiatosika, in Madagascar. Twenty-nine breeders and 23 drug vendors were asked to rank, respectively, 38 and 45 statements, produced from semi-structured interviews and secondary data, through a 7 grade scale from -3 (totally disagree) to +3 (totally agree) about antimicrobial use, related risks and alternatives. The interview ended with a discussion around extreme statements. The Q-sortings were analyzed by factor analysis and Principal Component Analysis. Regarding antimicrobial use, antimicrobial resistance and alternatives, the breeders and drug vendors were divided according to three discourses: "A: confidence in antibiotics" (respectively, 13 and 6 individuals), "B: belief in alternatives" (7 and 7 individuals), and "C: moderate approach to antibiotic use" (6 and 6 individuals), explaining, respectively, 57 and 60% of total variance. Group A was associated with the use of antibiotics as a preventive measure, poor knowledge of resistance and low trust in alternatives. Group B considered the preventive use of antibiotics to be a major problem for antimicrobial resistance and believed that alternatives, such as vaccines, were useful preventive methods. Group C seemed to have a hazy opinion. The presence of three main points of view offers the possibility to adapt awareness messages. Group B might also be used as a showcase to reduce the amounts of antibiotics used by the two other groups. This study revealed different practices and risk perceptions related to antimicrobial use that must be better characterized and accurately quantified.

Risk Mapping of Influenza D Virus Occurrence in Ruminants and Swine in Togo Using a Spatial Multicriteria Decision Analysis Approach.

Influenza D virus (IDV) has been identified in several continents, with serological evidence for the virus in Africa. In order to improve the sensitivity and cost-benefit of IDV surveillance in Togo, risk maps were drawn using a spatial multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) and experts' opinion to evaluate the relevance of sampling areas used so far. Areas at highest risk of IDV occurrence were the main cattle markets. The maps were evaluated with previous field surveillance data collected in Togo between 2017 and 2019: 1216 sera from cattle, small ruminants, and swine were screened for antibodies to IDV by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays. While further samples collections are needed to validate the maps, the risk maps resulting from the spatial MCDA approach generated here highlight several priority areas for IDV circulation assessment.

How Input Parameters and Calculation Rules Influence On-Farm Antimicrobial Use Indicators in Animals.

A variety of indicators of antimicrobial use are available in veterinary medicine, their choice should depend on the study objective as none has been recognized as the most appropriate metric. Calculation of indicators of antimicrobial use is based on a number of parameters (e.g., treatment dose or weight at treatment) that can be informed using theoretical (also called "standard") or actual (also called "used") values. Although few studies compare the application of several indicators to the same antimicrobial data, the obtained results lead to apparent discrepancies or contradictions. This study aimed to investigate antimicrobial use at the weaning stage in French pig farms and, more specifically, the impact the sources of information regarding doses, body weight at treatment and treatment length, had on the indicators results. A cross-sectional survey was conducted, and data collected from 70 farms made it possible to calculate four indicators at the weaning stage using different input values. The indicator values did not show significant differences when calculated based on the theoretical dose and length of treatment (as recommended by the summary of product characteristics) or when calculated based on the dose used and treatment length as applied by the farmer. However, all of the indicators showed significant differences when calculated using the standard theoretical weight (15 kg) or actual weight (P < 0.05). It appears that if data collection plans cannot be harmonized, clarification of indicator calculations in the literature is needed to allow comparisons between studies.

Unusual acute neonatal mortality and sow agalactia linked with ergot alkaloid contamination of feed.

BACKGROUND: An increase in the occurrence of ergot alkaloid contamination has been observed in Europe in recent years. The typical clinical signs of pig ergot poisoning are impaired growth, agalactia and, sometimes, gangrene. Opportunities for reporting exposure doses associated with clinical signs in animals under field conditions are rare. CASE PRESENTATION: In a farrow-to-finish pig farm with 160 sows, excessive acute neonatal mortality was reported in association with a loss of appetite and agalactia in sows. A herd examination was conducted and a high rate of piglet loss and agalactia in 13 sows out of the most affected batch of 20 were confirmed. Necropsy showed piglets with empty stomachs and intestines, with apparently normal mucosa. Gestating and lactating sow diet samples, as well as a wheat sample, were sent for analysis following feed mill inspection and a hypothesis of mycotoxin contamination of self-prepared feed. Liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry in tandem revealed an amount of total ergot alkaloids in all of the samples ranging from 3.49 mg/kg (gestating diet) to 8.06 mg/kg (lactating diet). The contaminated feed was removed and the situation returned to normal 3 weeks later (following batch of sows). CONCLUSION: In the present case, the exposure of sows to 3.49 mg/kg ergot alkaloid for 10 to 15 days before the end of gestation and to 8.06 mg/kg ergot alkaloid over 3 to 4 days at the beginning of lactation - corresponding to a content of 10,146 mg of sclerotia/kg in the wheat of the diets- led to agalactia in 13 of 20 sows in a batch and to a high neonatal mortality rates for all litters. No clinical signs associated with vasoconstrictive effects were observed.

Epidemiological Survey of Peste des Petits Ruminants in Ethiopia: Cattle as Potential Sentinel for Surveillance.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious viral disease of small ruminants; it emerged in countries previously free of the disease following the eradication of rinderpest. PPR is classified by international organizations as the next priority animal disease for global eradication campaign. Assessment of the local situations is the first step in the eradication efforts. The objective of this study was to investigate and compare the seroprevalence of PPR in cattle, sheep, and goats under two livestock production systems in Ethiopia: North Shewa zone of Amhara region represents a highland sedentary life style characterized by mixed livestock-crop production system; Zone Three of Afar region represents a lowland nomadic life style characterized by pastoral livestock production system. N-competitive ELISA PPR test was performed on sera from 2,993 animals ≥6 months old sampled at watering and grazing points. Multivariable logistic regression models comparing the seropositivity between the two production systems were built by classifying doubtful results as positive, negative, or excluding them from the data. The odds ratio (OR) comparing overall PPR seroprevalence in the sedentary North Shewa Zone compared to the nomadic Zone Three ranged from 19 to 27 (P < 0.001), depending on how doubtful results were classified, which contrasts with what has been reported in the literature. This is not likely to be related solely to vaccination, since seroprevalences in cattle and small ruminants were similarly high or low in the respective zones (0-4% for Zone Three and 20-40% for North Shewa Zone), and cattle were not likely to be vaccinated. The OR of seropositivity for goats compared to cattle ranged from 1.9 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.3-2.7; P < 0.001] to 2.2 (95% CI: 1.5-3.1; P < 0.001) when doubtful results were excluded or classified as negative, respectively. When doubtful results were classified as positive, association between seropositivity and animal species was not significant (P > 0.05). Our results suggest to further investigate cattle as sentinel animals for PPR surveillance.

Spatial Multicriteria Evaluation for Mapping the Risk of Occurrence of Peste des Petits Ruminants in Eastern Africa and the Union of the Comoros.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), responsible for peste des petits ruminants (PPR), is widely circulating in Africa and Asia. The disease is a huge burden for the economy and development of the affected countries. In Eastern Africa, the disease is considered endemic. Because of the geographic proximity and existing trade between eastern African countries and the Comoros archipelago, the latter is at risk of introduction and spread, and the first PPR outbreaks occurred in the Union of the Comoros in 2012. The objective of this study was to map the areas suitable for PPR occurrence and spread in the Union of the Comoros and four eastern African countries, namely Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. A Geographic Information System (GIS)-based Multicriteria Evaluation (MCE) was developed. Risk factors for PPR occurrence and spread, and their relative importance, were identified using literature review and expert-based knowledge. Corresponding geographic data were collected, standardized, and combined based on a weighted linear combination to obtain PPR suitability maps. The accuracy of the maps was assessed using outbreak data from the EMPRES database and a ROC curve analysis. Our model showed an excellent ability to distinguish between absence and presence of outbreaks in Eastern Africa (AUC = 0.907; 95% CI [0.820-0.994]), and a very good performance in the Union of the Comoros (AUC = 0.889, 95% CI: [0.694-1]). These results highlight the efficiency of the GIS-MCE method, which can be applied at different geographic scales: continental, national and local. The resulting maps provide decision support tools for implementation of disease surveillance and control measures, thus contributing to the PPR eradication goal of OIE and FAO by 2030.

A dynamic model of transmission and elimination of peste des petits ruminants in Ethiopia.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), a devastating viral disease of sheep and goats, has been targeted by the global community for eradication within the next 15 years. Although an efficacious attenuated live vaccine is available, the lack of knowledge about the transmission potential of PPR virus (PPRV) may compromise eradication efforts. By fitting a metapopulation model simulating PPRV spread to the results of a nationwide serological survey in Ethiopia, we estimated the level of viral transmission in an endemic setting and the vaccination coverage required for elimination. Results suggest that the pastoral production system as a whole acts as a viral reservoir, from which PPRV spills over into the sedentary production system, where viral persistence is uncertain. Estimated levels of PPRV transmission indicate that viral spread could be prevented if the proportion of immune small ruminants is kept permanently above 37% in at least 71% of pastoral village populations. However, due to the high turnover of these populations, maintaining the fraction of immune animals above this threshold would require high vaccine coverage within villages, and vaccination campaigns to be conducted annually. Adapting vaccination strategies to the specific characteristics of the local epidemiological context and small ruminant population dynamics would result in optimized allocation of limited resources and increase the likelihood of PPR eradication.

End-Cycle Sow Carcass Condemnation in a French Slaughterhouse.

Surveillance at an abattoir allows all animals or carcasses that present a potential public health risk to be withdrawn from the human food chain. Whole-carcass condemnation results in important economic losses, not only for the producer but also for other participants in the meat industry. Access to the personal electronic database of an abattoir in France enabled us to run logistic regression models to investigate the risk factors for whole-carcass condemnation of end-cycle sows in that abattoir. When end-cycle sows that were slaughtered and eviscerated between 22 June 2015 and 8 December 2015 (185 days) were considered (n = 19,866), the results highlighted the importance of the total theoretical time off feed, which represents the fasting period from leaving the farm of origin to the time of slaughter (including transportation and waiting time at the abattoir). Each 10-h increase in the theoretical time off feed was associated with a 31% greater likelihood of whole-carcass condemnation [odd ratio (OR) = 1.31, CI 95% (1.27; 1.34)], and a 10 kg increase in carcass weight before refrigeration was associated with a 23% lower likelihood of carcass condemnation [OR = 0.77, CI 95% (0.75; 0.78)]. The results also indicate the importance of the producer group that the farmer belonged to (P < 0.01). A relatively small number of variables was available in the actual database to study the relevant risk factors for whole-carcass condemnation associated with or without diseases at the farm of origin. This derives partly from the fact that traceability at the abattoir in France is done per batch rather than individually for pigs; further, limited information is available at the farm level. An investigation of the reasons for whole-carcass condemnation could have been informative; however, it was not feasible in a reasonable timeframe because these data were not saved in a database in a systematic way. Some of the difficulties encountered in this study should soon be alleviated by using the meat inspection information system software for collecting livestock meat inspection data. Implemented recently by the French ministry of agriculture, this new tool should allow for broader perspectives in swine surveillance.

Evaluation of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome stabilization protocols in 23 French Farrow-to-finish farms located in a high-density swine area.

BACKGROUND: Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is responsible for reproductive disorders in sows and respiratory problems in pigs, and has a major economic impact. Controlling PRRSV is therefore a priority for the swine industry. Stabilization of a herd, defined as the production of PRRSV-negative pigs at weaning from seropositive sows, is a common method of control, and different protocols have been described in the literature to achieve this stabilization. CONTEXT AND PURPOSE: The objective of this study was to evaluate wether the combination of mass vaccination of sows and their piglets with a Genotype I modified live virus (MLV) vaccine, with temporal closure to the introduction of replacement animals and unidirectional pig and human flow can result in the production of PRRSV-negative pigs at weaning. The study took place in French farrow-to-finish farms located in a high-density swine area where the disease concerns over 60% of farms and only closely related strains of genotype I have been reported. Twenty-three 100-to-700 sow farrow-to-finish farms were selected prospectively between 2005 and 2014, regardless of their biosecurity level. Those farms adopted a stabilization protocol characterized by the following standardized measures: vaccination of sows, gilts, and piglets with the Genotype I MLV vaccine PORCILIS®PRRS, temporary herd closure, and strict internal biosecurity measures. Monitoring of herd status was then performed using a combination of 3 diagnostic tools: Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and Open reading frame (ORF) 5 and ORF7 sequencing. The status of finishing units (either active or inactive, meaning PRRSV-positive or PRRSV-negative, respectively) was not considered in this study. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: At the end of the monitoring period, considering the results of all the analyses, clinical signs, and epidemiology, 19 farms were considered stable and 1 remained unstable. In 3 farms it was commonly agreed to extend the number of vaccinated batches of piglets, which enabled them to be considered stable at the end of a second round of monitoring. The combination of vaccination of sows and their piglets with a Genotype I MLV vaccine, together with the closure of the farm and a unidirectional pig and human flow, seems to be effective for farrow-to-finish farms even in high-density swine area, even with French PRRSV strains closely related to one another. This research is the first European study examining such a large number of farms, and increased confidence in the results stems from the added value of using the ORF7 and ORF5 sequencing tool.

Prediction of Pig Trade Movements in Different European Production Systems Using Exponential Random Graph Models.

In most European countries, data regarding movements of live animals are routinely collected and can greatly aid predictive epidemic modeling. However, the use of complete movements' dataset to conduct policy-relevant predictions has been so far limited by the massive amount of data that have to be processed (e.g., in intensive commercial systems) or the restricted availability of timely and updated records on animal movements (e.g., in areas where small-scale or extensive production is predominant). The aim of this study was to use exponential random graph models (ERGMs) to reproduce, understand, and predict pig trade networks in different European production systems. Three trade networks were built by aggregating movements of pig batches among premises (farms and trade operators) over 2011 in Bulgaria, Extremadura (Spain), and Côtes-d'Armor (France), where small-scale, extensive, and intensive pig production are predominant, respectively. Three ERGMs were fitted to each network with various demographic and geographic attributes of the nodes as well as six internal network configurations. Several statistical and graphical diagnostic methods were applied to assess the goodness of fit of the models. For all systems, both exogenous (attribute-based) and endogenous (network-based) processes appeared to govern the structure of pig trade network, and neither alone were capable of capturing all aspects of the network structure. Geographic mixing patterns strongly structured pig trade organization in the small-scale production system, whereas belonging to the same company or keeping pigs in the same housing system appeared to be key drivers of pig trade, in intensive and extensive production systems, respectively. Heterogeneous mixing between types of production also explained a part of network structure, whichever production system considered. Limited information is thus needed to capture most of the global structure of pig trade networks. Such findings will be useful to simplify trade networks analysis and better inform European policy makers on risk-based and more cost-effective prevention and control against swine diseases such as African swine fever, classical swine fever, or porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome.

Spatial and Functional Organization of Pig Trade in Different European Production Systems: Implications for Disease Prevention and Control.

Understanding the complexity of live pig trade organization is a key factor to predict and control major infectious diseases, such as classical swine fever (CSF) or African swine fever (ASF). Whereas the organization of pig trade has been described in several European countries with indoor commercial production systems, little information is available on this organization in other systems, such as outdoor or small-scale systems. The objective of this study was to describe and compare the spatial and functional organization of live pig trade in different European countries and different production systems. Data on premise characteristics and pig movements between premises were collected during 2011 from Bulgaria, France, Italy, and Spain, which swine industry is representative of most of the production systems in Europe (i.e., commercial vs. small-scale and outdoor vs. indoor). Trade communities were identified in each country using the Walktrap algorithm. Several descriptive and network metrics were generated at country and community levels. Pig trade organization showed heterogeneous spatial and functional organization. Trade communities mostly composed of indoor commercial premises were identified in western France, northern Italy, northern Spain, and north-western Bulgaria. They covered large distances, overlapped in space, demonstrated both scale-free and small-world properties, with a role of trade operators and multipliers as key premises. Trade communities involving outdoor commercial premises were identified in western Spain, south-western and central France. They were more spatially clustered, demonstrated scale-free properties, with multipliers as key premises. Small-scale communities involved the majority of premises in Bulgaria and in central and Southern Italy. They were spatially clustered and had scale-free properties, with key premises usually being commercial production premises. These results indicate that a disease might spread very differently according to the production system and that key premises could be targeted to more cost-effectively control diseases. This study provides useful epidemiological information and parameters that could be used to design risk-based surveillance strategies or to more accurately model the risk of introduction or spread of devastating swine diseases, such as ASF, CSF, or foot-and-mouth disease.

Integration of production and financial models to analyse the financial impact of livestock diseases: a case study of Schmallenberg virus disease on British and French dairy farms.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to investigate and compare the financial impact of Schmallenberg disease for different dairy production types in the United Kingdom and France. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Integrated production and financial models for dairy cattle were developed and applied to Schmallenberg virus (SBV) disease in a British and French context. The five main production systems that prevail in these two countries were considered. Their respective gross margins measuring the holding's profitability were calculated based on public benchmarking, literature and expert opinion data. A partial budget analysis was performed within each production model to estimate the impact of SBV in the systems modelled. Two disease scenarios were simulated: low impact and high impact. RESULTS: The model gross margin obtained per cow space and year ranged from £1014 to £1484 for the UK and from £1037 to £1890 for France depending on the production system considered. In the UK, the net SBV disease costs in £/cow space/year for an average dairy farm with 100 milking spaces were estimated between £16.3 and £51.4 in the high-impact scenario and between £8.2 and £25.9 in the low-impact scenario. For France, the net SBV disease costs in £/cow space/year ranged from £19.6 to £48.6 in the high-impact scenario and £9.7 to £22.8 in the low-impact scenario, respectively. CONCLUSION: The study illustrates how the combination of production and financial models allows assessing disease impact taking into account differing management and husbandry practices and associated price structures in the dairy sector. It supports decision-making of farmers and veterinarians who are considering disease control measures as it provides an approach to estimate baseline disease impact in common dairy production systems in the UK and France.

Status report on education in the economics of animal health: results from a European survey.

Education on the use of economics applied to animal health (EAH) has been offered since the 1980s. However, it has never been institutionalized within veterinary curricula, and there is no systematic information on current teaching and education activities in Europe. Nevertheless, the need for economic skills in animal health has never been greater. Economics can add value to disease impact assessments; improve understanding of people's incentives to participate in animal health measures; and help refine resource allocation for public animal health budgets. The use of economics should improve animal health decision making. An online questionnaire was conducted in European countries to assess current and future needs and expectations of people using EAH. The main conclusion from the survey is that education in economics appears to be offered inconsistently in Europe, and information about the availability of training opportunities in this field is scarce. There is a lack of harmonization of EAH education and significant gaps exist in the veterinary curricula of many countries. Depending on whether respondents belonged to educational institutions, public bodies, or private organizations, they expressed concerns regarding the limited education on decision making and impact assessment for animal diseases or on the use of economics for general management. Both public and private organizations recognized the increasing importance of EAH in the future. This should motivate the development of teaching methods and materials that aim at developing the understanding of animal health problems for the benefit of students and professional veterinarians.

Seroprevalence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) in Mali.

A serological survey to determine the prevalence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) in Mali was carried out by using the competitive enzyme linked-immunosorbent test (c-ELISA) on 8007 serum samples systematically collected from 199 cattle herds collected throughout the whole country. Results showed a national prevalence of 18.11 % at the individual level and 85.93 % at the herd level. Significant variations in the individual prevalence were observed between regions of the country and ranged from 4.63 % in Tombouctou to 54.88 % in Kidal. At the herd level, although there were variations between regions, a high prevalence was constantly observed ranging from 60 to 100 %, hence confirming the endemic nature of the disease across the country. The CBPP risk varied also between regions and was very low in Tombouctou (odds ratio (OR) = 0.4) but very high in Kidal (OR = 9.8). Similarly, the risk seemed higher in the animals of the over 3-year age group (OR = 1.6) compared to the other age groups. It was also observed that there was a slightly higher risk (OR = 1.3) in the females than in the males. This study confirms the presence of CBPP across the country and should help to elaborate strategies for the effective control of the disease.

Application of integrated production and economic models to estimate the impact of Schmallenberg virus for various beef suckler production systems in France and the United Kingdom.

BACKGROUND: Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was first detected in November 2011 in Germany and then rapidly spread throughout Europe. In beef suckler farms, clinical signs are mainly associated with reproductive disorders, particularly in late gestation, and intransient and non-specific symptoms, namely diarrhea, inappetence and fever. The objectives of this study were to develop models that simulate the production of different beef suckler systems in the United Kingdom (UK) and France and to use these models to estimate, through partial budget analyses, the farm-level economic cost of SBV under two disease impact scenarios, namely high and low impact. The probability for a farm to be in the high or low scenario depends, among other, on the high, low or nil vectorial activity for a given period and location and on the period(s) of sensitivity of the animals to the disease. RESULTS: Under the high impact scenario, the estimated SBV impact ranged from 26€ to 43€ per cow per year in France and from 29€ to 36€ per cow per year in the UK. It was approximately half of this amount in the low impact scenario. These financial impacts represent 5 to 16% of the gross margin, depending on the country, impact scenario and livestock system considered. Most of the SBV impact originates from the costs of the steers and heifers not produced. Differences identified between the systems studied mainly stem from differences among the value of the steers or heifers sold: SBV impact is higher for British autumn calving systems compared to spring calving, and for French farms with calving and fattening activities compared to farms with only a single, annual calving activity. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows the usefulness of integrated production and economic models to accurately evaluate the costs of diseases and understand which factors have major impacts in the different systems. The models stand as a useful basis for animal health professionals when considering alternative disease control measures. They are also a farm accounting tool for estimating disease impact on differing production practices, which creates the necessary basis for cost-effectiveness analysis of intervention strategies, such as vaccination.

Variations in the vulvar temperature of sows during proestrus and estrus as determined by infrared thermography and its relation to ovulation.

The prediction of ovulation time is one of the most important and yet difficult processes in pig production, and it has a considerable impact on the fertility of the herd and litter size. The objective of this study was to assess the vulvar skin temperature of sows during proestrus and estrus using infrared thermography and to establish a possible relationship between the variations in vulvar temperature and ovulation. The experimental group comprised 36 crossbred Large White × Landrace females, of which 6 were gilts and 30 were multiparous sows. Estrus was detected twice daily and the temperature was obtained every 6 hours from the vulvar area and from two control points in the gluteal area (Gluteal skin temperature [GST]). A third variable, vulvar-gluteal temperature (VGT) was obtained from the difference between the vulvar skin temperature and the GST values. The animals were divided into two subgroups: group A consisting of 11 animals with estrus detected at 6:00 AM, Day 4 postweaning, and group B comprising seven animals with estrus detected at 6:00 AM, Day 5 post-weaning. Both groups showed a similar trend in the VGT. The VGT increased during the proestrus, reaching a peak 24 hours before estrus in group A and 48 hours before estrus in group B. The VGT then decreased markedly reaching the lowest value in groups A and B, respectively, 12 and 6 hours after estrus. Although the time of ovulation was only estimated on the basis of a literature review, the matching between the temporal variations of the VGT values and the predicted time of the peak of estradiol secretion that ultimately leads to the ovulation processes suggests that the VGT values represent a potential predictive marker of the ovulatory events.

Application of integrated production and economic models to estimate the impact of Schmallenberg virus for various sheep production types in the UK and France.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to estimate and compare the economic impact of Schmallenberg virus (SBV) in different sheep production holdings using partial budget and gross margin analyses in combination with production models. PARTICIPANTS: The sheep production types considered were lowland spring lambing, upland spring lambing and early lambing flocks in the UK, and grass lamb flocks of the Centre and West of France, extensive lambing flocks and dairy sheep flocks in France. METHODOLOGY: Two disease scenarios with distinct input parameters associated with reproductive problems were considered: low and high impact. Sensitivity analyses were performed for the most uncertain input parameters, and the models were run with all of the lowest and highest values to estimate the range of disease impact. RESULTS: The estimated net SBV disease cost per year and ewe for the UK was £19.65-£20.85 for the high impact scenario and £6.40-£6.58 for the low impact scenario. No major differences were observed between the different production types. For France, the net SBV disease cost per year and ewe for the meat sheep holdings was £15.59-£17.20 for the high impact scenario and £4.75-£5.26 for the low impact scenario. For the dairy sheep, the costs per year and ewe were £29.81 for the high impact scenario and £10.34 for the low impact scenario. CONCLUSIONS: The models represent a useful decision support tool for farmers and veterinarians who are facing decisions regarding disease control measures. They allow estimating disease impact on a farm accounting for differing production practices, which creates the necessary basis for cost effectiveness analysis of intervention strategies, such as vaccination.