Are we underestimating microplastic abundance in the marine environment? A comparison of microplastic capture with nets of different mesh-size.

Microplastic debris is ubiquitous and yet sampling, classifying and enumerating this prolific pollutant in marine waters has proven challenging. Typically, waterborne microplastic sampling is undertaken using nets with a 333 µm mesh, which cannot account for smaller debris. In this study, we provide an estimate of the extent to which microplastic concentrations are underestimated with traditional sampling. Our efforts focus on coastal waters, where microplastics are predicted to have the greatest influence on marine life, on both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean. Microplastic debris was collected via surface trawls using 100, 333 and 500 µm nets. Our findings show that sampling using nets with a 100 µm mesh resulted in the collection of 2.5-fold and 10-fold greater microplastic concentrations compared with using 333 and 500 µm meshes respectively (P < 0.01). Based on the relationship between microplastic concentrations identified and extrapolation of our data using a power law, we estimate that microplastic concentrations could exceed 3700 microplastics m-3 if a net with a 1 µm mesh size is used. We further identified that use of finer nets resulted in the collection of significantly thinner and shorter microplastic fibres (P < 0.05). These results elucidate that estimates of marine microplastic concentrations could currently be underestimated.

Mountains to the sea: River study of plastic and non-plastic microfiber pollution in the northeast USA.

Aquatic environments are sinks for anthropogenic contamination, whether chemical or solid pollutants. Microfibers shed from clothing and other textiles contribute to this problem. These can be plastic or non-plastic origin. Our aim was to investigate the presence and distribution of both types of anthropogenic microfibers along the length of the Hudson River, USA. Surface grab samples were collected and filtered through a 0.45µm filter paper. Abundance of fibers was determined after subtraction of potential contamination. 233 microfibers were recorded in 142 samples, averaging 0.98microfibersL-1. Subsequent micro-FTIR showed half of the fibers were plastic while the other half were non-plastic, but of anthropogenic origin. There was no relationship between fiber abundance, wastewater treatment plant location or population density. Extrapolating from this data, and using available hydrographic data, 34.4% of the Hudson River's watershed drainage area contributes an average 300 million anthropogenic microfibers into the Atlantic Ocean per day.

Through the sands of time: Beach litter trends from nine cleaned north cornish beaches.

Marine litter and its accumulation on beaches is an issue of major current concern due to its significant environmental and economic impacts. Yet our understanding of spatio-temporal trends in beach litter and the drivers of these trends are currently limited by the availability of robust long term data sets. Here we present a unique data set collected systematically once a month, every month over a six year period for nine beaches along the North Coast of Cornwall, U.K. to investigate the key drivers of beach litter in the Bude, Padstow and Porthcothan areas. Overall, an average of 0.02 litter items m-2 per month were collected during the six year study, with Bude beaches (Summerleaze, Crooklets and Widemouth) the most impacted (0.03 ± 0.004 litter items m-2 per month). The amount of litter collected each month decreased by 18% and 71% respectively for Padstow (Polzeath, Trevone and Harlyn) and Bude areas over the 6 years, possibly related to the regular cleaning, however litter increased by 120% despite this monthly cleaning effort on the Padstow area beaches. Importantly, at all nine beaches the litter was dominated by small, fragmented plastic pieces and rope fibres, which account for 32% and 17% of all litter items collected, respectively. The weathered nature of these plastics indicates they have been in the marine environment for an extended period of time. So, whilst classifying the original source of these plastics is not possible, it can be concluded they are not the result of recent public littering. This data highlights both the extent of the marine litter problem and that current efforts to reduce littering by beach users will only tackle a fraction of this litter. Such information is vital for developing effective management strategies for beach and marine litter at both regional and global levels.

Lipid Composition of Oil Extracted from Wasted Norway Lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) Heads and Comparison with Oil Extracted from Antarctic Krill (Euphasia superba).

In the UK, the Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) supports its most important shellfish fishery. Nephrops are sold either whole, or as "tails-only" for the scampi trade. In the "tailing" process, the "head" (cephalothorax) is discarded as waste. A smaller crustacean species, the Antarctic krill Euphasia superba, represents an economically valuable industry, as its extractable oil is sold as a human dietary supplement. The aim of this study was to determine the amount and composition of the oil contained in discarded Nephrops heads and to compare its composition to the oil extracted from krill. Differences due to Geographical variation and seasonal patterns in the amount and composition of lipid were also noted. Results indicated that Nephrops head waste samples collected from more southern locations in Scotland (Clyde Sea area) contained higher levels of oil when compared to samples collected from northern locations in Iceland. Moreover, seasonal differences within the Clyde Sea area in Scotland were also observed, with oil extracted from Nephrops head waste peaking at around 11.5% during the summer months when larger and more mature females were caught by trawl. At this time of the year, the valuable fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) accounted for around 23% of the total fatty acid content in oil extracted from Nephrops head waste. A seasonal effect on EPA content was found, with higher levels obtained in the summer, while no trend was found in DHA percentages. Finally, oil from Nephrops head waste contained a higher proportion of EPA and DHA than krill oil but these fatty acids were more abundantly linked to the neutral lipids rather to than polar lipids. The characterization of lipid that could be extracted from Nephrops head waste should be seen as a first step for the commercial use of a valuable resource currently wasted. This approach is extremely relevant given the current limited supply of EPA and DHA and changes in the Common Fisheries Policy.

Effect of Microplastic on the Gills of the Shore Crab Carcinus maenas.

Microscopic plastic debris (microplastics, <5 mm in diameter) is ubiquitous in the marine environment. Previous work has shown that microplastics may be ingested and inhaled by the shore crab Carcinus maenas, although the biological consequences are unknown. Here, we show that acute aqueous exposure to polystyrene microspheres (8 µm) with different surface coatings had significant but transient effects on branchial function. Microspheres inhaled into the gill chamber had a small but significant dose-dependent effect on oxygen consumption after 1 h of exposure, returning to normal levels after 16 h. Ion exchange was also affected, with a small but significant decrease in hemolymph sodium ions and an increase in calcium ions after 24 h post-exposure. To further asses the effects on osmoregulation, we challenged crabs with reduced salinity after microplastic exposure. Neither microspheres nor natural sediments altered the crab's response to osmotic stress regardless of plastic concentration added. Carboxylated (COOH) and aminated (NH2) polystyrene microspheres were distributed differently across the gill surface, although neither had a significant adverse impact on gill function. These results illustrate the extent of the physiological effects of microplastics compared to the physiological resilience of shore crabs in maintaining osmoregulatory and respiratory function after acute exposure to both anthropogenic plastics and natural particles.

Ingestion of Plastic Microfibers by the Crab Carcinus maenas and Its Effect on Food Consumption and Energy Balance.

Microscopic plastic fragments (<5 mm) are a worldwide conservation issue, polluting both coastal and marine environments. Fibers are the most prominent plastic type reported in the guts of marine organisms, but their effects once ingested are unknown. This study investigated the fate of polypropylene rope microfibers (1-5 mm in length) ingested by the crab Carcinus maenas and the consequences for the crab's energy budget. In chronic 4 week feeding studies, crabs that ingested food containing microfibers (0.3-1.0% plastic by weight) showed reduced food consumption (from 0.33 to 0.03 g d(-1)) and a significant reduction in energy available for growth (scope for growth) from 0.59 to -0.31 kJ crab d(-1) in crabs fed with 1% plastic. The polypropylene microfibers were physically altered by their passage through the foregut and were excreted with a smaller overall size and length and amalgamated into distinctive balls. These results support of the emerging paradigm that a key biological impact of microplastic ingestion is a reduction in energy budgets for the affected marine biota. We also provide novel evidence of the biotransformations that can affect the plastics themselves following ingestion and excretion.

Uptake and retention of microplastics by the shore crab Carcinus maenas.

Microplastics, plastics particles <5 mm in length, are a widespread pollutant of the marine environment. Oral ingestion of microplastics has been reported for a wide range of marine biota, but uptake into the body by other routes has received less attention. Here, we test the hypothesis that the shore crab (Carcinus maenas) can take up microplastics through inspiration across the gills as well as ingestion of pre-exposed food (common mussel Mytilus edulis). We used fluorescently labeled polystyrene microspheres (8-10 µm) to show that ingested microspheres were retained within the body tissues of the crabs for up to 14 days following ingestion and up to 21 days following inspiration across the gill, with uptake significantly higher into the posterior versus anterior gills. Multiphoton imaging suggested that most microspheres were retained in the foregut after dietary exposure due to adherence to the hairlike setae and were found on the external surface of gills following aqueous exposure. Results were used to construct a simple conceptual model of particle flow for the gills and the gut. These results identify ventilation as a route of uptake of microplastics into a common marine nonfilter feeding species.