Stressful Life Events, ADHD Symptoms, and Brain Structure in Early Adolescence.

Despite a growing understanding that early adversity in childhood broadly affects risk for psychopathology, the contribution of stressful life events to the development of symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is not clear. In the present study, we examined the association between number of stressful life events experienced and ADHD symptoms, assessed using the Attention Problems subscale of the Child Behavior Checklist, in a sample of 214 children (43% male) ages 9.11-13.98 years (M = 11.38, SD = 1.05). In addition, we examined whether the timing of the events (i.e., onset through age 5 years or after age 6 years) was associated with ADHD symptoms. Finally, we examined variation in brain structure to determine whether stressful life events were associated with volume in brain regions that were found to vary as a function of symptoms of ADHD. We found a small to moderate association between number of stressful life events and ADHD symptoms. Although the strength of the associations between number of events and ADHD symptoms did not differ as a function of the age of occurrence of stressful experiences, different brain regions were implicated in the association between stressors and ADHD symptoms in the two age periods during which stressful life events occurred. These findings support the hypothesis that early adversity is associated with ADHD symptoms, and provide insight into possible brain-based mediators of this association.

A Role for Mitogen- and Stress-Activated Kinase 1 in L-DOPA-Induced Dyskinesia and ∆FosB Expression.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal regulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 has been implicated in 3,4-dihydroxy-l-phenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced dyskinesia (LID), a motor complication affecting Parkinson's disease patients subjected to standard pharmacotherapy. We examined the involvement of mitogen- and stress-activated kinase 1 (MSK1), a downstream target of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2, and an important regulator of transcription in LID. METHODS: 6-Hydroxydopamine was used to produce a model of Parkinson's disease in MSK1 knockout mice and in ∆FosB- or ∆cJun-overexpressing transgenic mice, which were assessed for LID following long-term L-DOPA administration. Biochemical processes were evaluated by Western blotting or immunofluorescence. Histone H3 phosphorylation was analyzed by chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by promotor-specific quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Genetic inactivation of MSK1 attenuated LID and reduced the phosphorylation of histone H3 at Ser10 in the striatum. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis showed that this reduction occurred at the level of the fosB gene promoter. In line with this observation, the accumulation of ∆FosB produced by chronic L-DOPA was reduced in MSK1 knockout. Moreover, inducible overexpression of ∆FosB in striatonigral medium spiny neurons exacerbated dyskinetic behavior, whereas overexpression of ∆cJun, which reduces ∆FosB-dependent transcriptional activation, counteracted LID. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that abnormal regulation of MSK1 contributes to the development of LID and to the concomitant increase in striatal ∆FosB, which may occur via increased histone H3 phosphorylation at the fosB promoter. Results also show that accumulation of ∆FosB in striatonigral neurons is causally related to the development of dyskinesia.

Paternal transmission of stress-induced pathologies.

BACKGROUND: There has been recent interest in the possibility that epigenetic mechanisms might contribute to the transgenerational transmission of stress-induced vulnerability. Here, we focused on possible paternal transmission with the social defeat stress paradigm. METHODS: Adult male mice exposed to chronic social defeat stress or control nondefeated mice were bred with normal female mice, and their offspring were assessed behaviorally for depressive- and anxiety-like measures. Plasma levels of corticosterone and vascular endothelial growth factor were also assayed. To directly assess the role of epigenetic mechanisms, we used in vitro fertilization (IVF); behavioral assessments were conducted on offspring of mice from IVF-control and IVF-defeated fathers. RESULTS: We show that both male and female offspring from defeated fathers exhibit increased measures of several depression- and anxiety-like behaviors. The male offspring of defeated fathers also display increased baseline plasma levels of corticosterone and decreased levels of vascular endothelial growth factor. However, most of these behavioral changes were not observed when offspring were generated through IVF. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that, although behavioral adaptations that occur after chronic social defeat stress can be transmitted from the father to his male and female F1 progeny, only very subtle changes might be transmitted epigenetically under the conditions tested.

Serum response factor promotes resilience to chronic social stress through the induction of DeltaFosB.

The molecular mechanisms underlying stress- and drug-induced neuronal adaptations are incompletely understood. One molecule implicated in such adaptations is ΔFosB, a transcription factor that accumulates in the rodent nucleus accumbens (NAc), a key brain reward region, in response to either chronic stress or repeated exposure to drugs of abuse. The upstream transcriptional mechanisms controlling ΔFosB induction by these environmental stimuli remain elusive. Here, we identify the activity-dependent transcription factor, serum response factor (SRF), as a novel upstream mediator of stress-, but not cocaine-, induced ΔFosB. SRF is downregulated in NAc of both depressed human patients and in mice chronically exposed to social defeat stress. This downregulation of SRF is absent in resilient animals. Through the use of inducible mutagenesis, we show that stress-mediated induction of ΔFosB, which occurs predominantly in resilient mice, is dependent on SRF expression in this brain region. Furthermore, NAc-specific genetic deletion of SRF promotes a variety of prodepressant- and proanxiety-like phenotypes and renders animals more sensitive to the deleterious effects of chronic stress. In contrast, we demonstrate that SRF does not play a role in ΔFosB accumulation in NAc in response to chronic cocaine exposure. Furthermore, NAc-specific knock-out of SRF has no effect on cocaine-induced behaviors, indicating that chronic social defeat stress and repeated cocaine exposure regulate ΔFosB accumulation and behavioral sensitivity through independent mechanisms.

Dnmt3a regulates emotional behavior and spine plasticity in the nucleus accumbens.

Despite abundant expression of DNA methyltransferases (Dnmts) in brain, the regulation and behavioral role of DNA methylation remain poorly understood. We found that Dnmt3a expression was regulated in mouse nucleus accumbens (NAc) by chronic cocaine use and chronic social defeat stress. Moreover, NAc-specific manipulations that block DNA methylation potentiated cocaine reward and exerted antidepressant-like effects, whereas NAc-specific Dnmt3a overexpression attenuated cocaine reward and was pro-depressant. On a cellular level, we found that chronic cocaine use selectively increased thin dendritic spines on NAc neurons and that DNA methylation was both necessary and sufficient to mediate these effects. These data establish the importance of Dnmt3a in the NAc in regulating cellular and behavioral plasticity to emotional stimuli.

DeltaFosB in brain reward circuits mediates resilience to stress and antidepressant responses.

In contrast with the many studies of stress effects on the brain, relatively little is known about the molecular mechanisms of resilience, the ability of some individuals to escape the deleterious effects of stress. We found that the transcription factor DeltaFosB mediates an essential mechanism of resilience in mice. Induction of DeltaFosB in the nucleus accumbens, an important brain reward-associated region, in response to chronic social defeat stress was both necessary and sufficient for resilience. DeltaFosB induction was also required for the standard antidepressant fluoxetine to reverse behavioral pathology induced by social defeat. DeltaFosB produced these effects through induction of the GluR2 AMPA glutamate receptor subunit, which decreased the responsiveness of nucleus accumbens neurons to glutamate, and through other synaptic proteins. Together, these findings establish a previously unknown molecular pathway underlying both resilience and antidepressant action.