Biodegradation of explosives mixture in soil under different water-content conditions.

Soil redox potential plays a key role in the rates and pathways of explosives degradation, and is highly influenced by water content and microbial activity. Soil redox potential can vary significantly both temporally and spatially in micro-sites. In this study, when soil water content increased, the redox potential decreased, and there was significant enhancement in the biodegradation of a mixture of three explosives. Whereas TNT degradation occurred under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions, RDX and HMX degradation occurred only when water content conditions resulted in a prolonged period of negative redox potential. Moreover, under unsaturated conditions, which are more representative of real environmental conditions, the low redox potential, even when measured for temporary periods, was sufficient to facilitate anaerobic degradation. Our results clearly indicate a negative influence of TNT on the biodegradation of RDX and HMX, but this effect was less pronounced than that found in previous slurry batch experiments: this can be explained by a masking effect of the soil in the canisters. Fully or partially saturated soils can promote the existence of micro-niches that differ considerably in their explosives concentration, microbial community and redox conditions.

Sequential biodegradation of TNT, RDX and HMX in a mixture.

We describe TNT's inhibition of RDX and HMX anaerobic degradation in contaminated soil containing indigenous microbial populations. Biodegradation of RDX or HMX alone was markedly faster than their degradation in a mixture with TNT, implying biodegradation inhibition by the latter. The delay caused by the presence of TNT continued even after its disappearance and was linked to the presence of its intermediate, tetranitroazoxytoluene. PCR-DGGE analysis of cultures derived from the soil indicated a clear reduction in microbial biomass and diversity with increasing TNT concentration. At high-TNT concentrations (30 and 90 mg/L), only a single band, related to Clostridium nitrophenolicum, was observed after 3 days of incubation. We propose that the mechanism of TNT inhibition involves a cytotoxic effect on the RDX- and HMX-degrading microbial population. TNT inhibition in the top active soil can therefore initiate rapid transport of RDX and HMX to the less active subsurface and groundwater.

"Phytoscreening": the use of trees for discovering subsurface contamination by VOCs.

We tested the possibility of using tree cores to detect unknown subsurface contamination by chlorinated volatile organic compounds (Cl-VOCs) and petroleum hydrocarbons, a method we term "phytoscreening". The scope and limitations of the method include the following: (i) a number of widespread Cl-VOC contaminants are readily found in tree cores, although those with very high vapor pressures or low boiling points may be absent; (ii) volatile petroleum hydrocarbons were notwell-expressed in tree cores; (iii) trees should be sampled during active evapotranspiration and from directions that are well exposed to sunlight; (iv) there is not necessarily a direct correlation between concentrations measured in tree cores and those in the subsurface; (v) detection of a contaminant in a tree core indicates that the subsurface is contaminated with the pollutant; (vi) many possible causes of false negatives may be predicted and avoided. We sampled trees at 13 random locations in the Tel Aviv metropolitan area and identified Cl-VOCs in tree coresfromthree locations. Subsequently, subsurface contamination at all three sites was confirmed. Phytoscreening is a simple, fast, noninvasive, and inexpensive screening method for detecting subsurface contamination, and is particularly useful in urban settings where conventional methods are difficult and expensive to employ.

Effects of surfactants originating from reuse of greywater on capillary rise in the soil.

Greywater is all domestic wastewater excluding toilet effluents. Detergents contain surfactants, which account for the highest concentration of organic chemicals in average domestic wastewater. Accumulation of surfactants in greywater-irrigated soils was determined in three household gardens. The effect of surfactants on capillary rise in loess and sand was then tested in the range of concentrations found in the garden soils. The capillary rise of freshwater in sieved oven-dried soil mixed with different concentrations of laundry detergent solution (10% w/w moisture content) was determined. In a second setup, the soil was mixed with freshwater and the rising solution contained different concentrations of detergent solution. The introduction of laundry solution to the soils caused a significant decrease in the capillary rise over the range of concentrations that is found in greywater-irrigated soils. The effect was more noticeable in the sand than in the loess. Interestingly, in the second setup, the capillary rise of the laundry solutions in the sand was almost similar to that of freshwater, whereas in the loess the capillary rise was significantly reduced. It is suggested that accumulation of surfactants in the soil might form water repellent soils that have a significant effect on agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability.