P2X7 Receptor-Induced Human Mast Cell Degranulation Is Enhanced by Interleukin 33.

MCs are tissue-resident immune cells that strategically reside in barrier organs and respond effectively to a wide range of stimuli, such as IL-33, a mediator released upon epithelial damage. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) accumulates at sites of tissue injury and is known to modulate MC activities. This study investigated how an inflammatory tissue environment rich in IL-33 modulates the ATP-mediated activation of MCs. Human primary MCs primed with IL-33 displayed a strongly increased response to ATP but not ADP. This resulted in increased degranulation, IL-8 release, and pERK1/2 signalling. Such effects are unique to IL-33 stimulation and not shared by the epithelial alarmin, TSLP. MC exposure to IL-33 also increased membrane expression of purinergic and ATP-binding P2X receptors. The use of selective P2X receptor inhibitors identified P2X7 receptor as the key mediator of the enhanced ATP-induced ERK1/2 signalling and degranulation in IL-33-primed MCs. Whilst the inhibition of P2X1 and P2X4 receptors had no effect on MC degranulation, inhibiting these receptors together with P2X7 resulted in further decreased MC-mediated degranulation. These data therefore point toward the potential mechanisms by which IL-33 contributes to the modulation of ATP-mediated activation in human MCs.

Utilizing Molecular Epidemiology and Citizen Science for the Surveillance of Lagoviruses in Australia.

Australia has multiple lagoviruses with differing pathogenicity. The circulation of these viruses was traditionally determined through opportunistic sampling events. In the lead up to the nationwide release of RHDVa-K5 (GI.1aP-GI.1a) in 2017, an existing citizen science program, RabbitScan, was augmented to allow members of the public to submit samples collected from dead leporids for lagovirus testing. This study describes the information obtained from the increased number of leporid samples received between 2015 and 2022 and focuses on the recent epidemiological interactions and evolutionary trajectory of circulating lagoviruses in Australia between October 2020 and December 2022. A total of 2771 samples were tested from January 2015 to December 2022, of which 1643 were lagovirus-positive. Notable changes in the distribution of lagovirus variants were observed, predominantly in Western Australia, where RHDV2-4c (GI.4cP-GI.2) was detected again in 2021 after initially being reported to be present in 2018. Interestingly, we found evidence that the deliberately released RHDVa-K5 was able to establish and circulate in wild rabbit populations in WA. Overall, the incorporation of citizen science approaches proved to be a cost-efficient method to increase the sampling area and enable an in-depth analysis of lagovirus distribution, genetic diversity, and interactions. The maintenance of such programs is essential to enable continued investigations of the critical parameters affecting the biocontrol of feral rabbit populations in Australia, as well as to enable the detection of any potential future incursions.

Spatial and temporal patterns of sarcoptic mange in wombats using the citizen science tool, WomSAT.

There is currently limited information regarding the levels of infection and distribution of sarcoptic mange in the wombat population throughout Australia. We analyzed cases of sarcoptic mange in bare-nosed wombats reported into WomSAT, a website and mobile phone application where citizen scientists can upload sightings of wombats, burrows, and sarcoptic mange status. We used Maxent software to predict locations and the environmental factors associated with sarcoptic mange occurrence in bare-nosed wombats. A total of 1379 sarcoptic mange-infected and 3043 non-sarcoptic mange-infected wombats were reported by 674 and 841 citizen scientists, respectively. Of all the wombats reported to WomSAT from 2015 to 2019, 31.2% were infected with sarcoptic mange. Sarcoptic mange in bare-nosed wombats was reported in 502 suburbs across four states. New South Wales had the highest number of sarcoptic mange cases reported to WomSAT. There was no statistically significant seasonal variation of sarcoptic mange levels in bare-nosed wombats. The model showed that Euclidean distance to urban areas was the highest contributing factor for sarcoptic mange occurrence. As distance to urban areas decreased, the suitability for sarcoptic mange increased. Annual precipitation was the next contributing factor in the model, with higher rainfall of 400-700 mm correlating to an increase in sarcoptic mange occurrence. As the data collected to date have provided the largest-scale contemporary distribution of sarcoptic mange in wombats, data should continue to be collected by citizen scientists as it is an easy and low-cost method of collecting data over large areas. We suggest targeting the identified hotspot areas and more site-specific studies for studying and mitigating sarcoptic mange in bare-nosed wombats.

Human Mast Cells Upregulate Cathepsin B, a Novel Marker of Itch in Psoriasis.

Mast cells (MCs) contribute to skin inflammation. In psoriasis, the activation of cutaneous neuroimmune networks commonly leads to itch. To dissect the unique contribution of MCs to the cutaneous neuroinflammatory response in psoriasis, we examined their density, distribution, relation to nerve fibres and disease severity, and molecular signature by comparing RNA-seq analysis of MCs isolated from the skin of psoriasis patients and healthy volunteers. In involved psoriasis skin, MCs and Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP)-positive nerve fibres were spatially associated, and the increase of both MC and nerve fibre density correlated with disease severity. Gene set enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes in involved psoriasis skin showed significant representation of neuron-related pathways (i.e., regulation of neuron projection along with dendrite and dendritic spine morphogenesis), indicating MC engagement in neuronal development and supporting the evidence of close MC-nerve fibre interaction. Furthermore, the analysis of 208 identified itch-associated genes revealed that CTSB, TLR4, and TACR1 were upregulated in MCs in involved skin. In both whole-skin published datasets and isolated MCs, CTSB was found to be a reliable indicator of the psoriasis condition. Furthermore, cathepsin B+ cells were increased in psoriasis skin and cathepsin B+ MC density correlated with disease severity. Therefore, our study provides evidence that cathepsin B could serve as a common indicator of the MC-dependent itch signature in psoriasis.

Glutamate dynamics in the dorsolateral striatum of rats with goal-directed and habitual cocaine-seeking behavior.

The shift from drug abuse to addiction is considered to arise from the transition between goal-directed and habitual control over drug behavior. Habitual responding for appetitive and skill-based behaviors is mediated by potentiated glutamate signaling in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), but the state of the DLS glutamate system in the context of habitual drug-behavior remains undefined. Evidence from the nucleus accumbens of cocaine-experienced rats suggests that decreased transporter-mediated glutamate clearance and enhanced synaptic glutamate release contribute to the potentiated glutamate signaling that underlies the enduring vulnerability to relapse. Preliminary evidence from the dorsal striatum of cocaine-experienced rats suggests that this region exhibits similar alterations to glutamate clearance and release, but it is not known whether these glutamate dynamics are associated with goal-directed or habitual control over cocaine-seeking behavior. Therefore, we trained rats to self-administer cocaine in a chained cocaine-seeking and -taking paradigm, which yielded goal-directed, intermediate, and habitual cocaine-seeking rats. We then assessed glutamate clearance and release dynamics in the DLS of these rats using two different methods: synaptic transporter current (STC) recordings of patch-clamped astrocytes and the intensity-based glutamate sensing fluorescent reporter (iGluSnFr). While we observed a decreased rate of glutamate clearance in STCs evoked with single-pulse stimulation in cocaine-experienced rats, we did not observe any cocaine-induced differences in glutamate clearance rates from STCs evoked with high frequency stimulation (HFS) or iGluSnFr responses evoked with either double-pulse stimulation or HFS. Furthermore, GLT-1 protein expression in the DLS was unchanged in cocaine-experienced rats, regardless of their mode of control over cocaine-seeking behavior. Lastly, there were no differences in metrics of glutamate release between cocaine-experienced rats and yoked-saline controls in either assay. Together, these results suggest that glutamate clearance and release dynamics in the DLS are largely unaltered by a history of cocaine self-administration on this established cocaine seeking-taking paradigm, regardless of whether the control over the cocaine seeking behavior was habitual or goal directed.

Mast cell tissue heterogeneity and specificity of immune cell recruitment.

Mast cells occupy a unique niche within tissues as long lived perpetrators of IgE mediated hypersensitivity and anaphylaxis, as well as other immune responses. However, mast cells are not identical in different tissues and the impact of this tissue heterogeneity on the interaction with other immune cells and on defined immune responses is still unclear. In this review, we synthesize the characteristics of mast cell heterogeneity in the gut and the skin. Furthermore, we attempt to connect mast cell heterogeneity with functional diversity by exploring differences in mast cell-induced immune cell recruitment in these two model organs. The differential expression of certain receptors on mast cells of different tissues, notably tissue-specific expression patterns of integrins, complement receptors and MRGPRX2, could indicate that tissue environment-dependent factors skew mast cell-immune cell interactions, for example by regulating the expression of these receptors.

Ascorbic Acid Reduces Neurotransmission, Synaptic Plasticity, and Spontaneous Hippocampal Rhythms in In Vitro Slices.

Ascorbic acid (AA; a.k.a. vitamin C) is well known for its cellular protection in environments of high oxidative stress. Even though physiological concentrations of AA in the brain are significant (0.2-10 mM), surprisingly little is known concerning the role of AA in synaptic neurotransmission under normal, non-disease state conditions. Here, we examined AA effects on neurotransmission, plasticity and spontaneous network activity (i.e., sharp waves and high frequency oscillations; SPW-HFOs), at the synapse between area 3 and 1 of the hippocampal cornu ammonis region (CA3 and CA1) using an extracellular multi-electrode array in in vitro mouse hippocampal slices. We found that AA decreased evoked field potentials (fEPSPs, IC50 = 0.64 mM) without affecting V50s or paired pulse facilitation indicating normal neurotransmitter release mechanisms. AA decreased presynaptic fiber volleys but did not change fiber volley-to-fEPSP coupling, suggesting reduced fEPSPs resulted from decreased fiber volleys. Inhibitory effects were also observed in CA1 stratum pyramidale where greater fEPSPs were required for population spikes in the presence of AA suggesting an impact on the intrinsic excitability of neurons. Other forms of synaptic plasticity and correlates of memory (i.e., short- and long-term potentiation) were also significantly reduced by AA as was the incidence of spontaneous SPW-HFOs. AA decreased SPW amplitude with a similar IC50 as fEPSPs (0.65 mM). Overall, these results indicate that under normal conditions AA significantly regulates neurotransmission, plasticity, and network activity by limiting excitability. Thus, AA may participate in refinement of signal processing and memory formation, as well as protecting against pathologic excitability.

Effects of methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity on striatal long-term potentiation.

RATIONALE: Methamphetamine (METH) exposure is associated with damage to central monoamine systems, particularly dopamine signaling. Rodent models of such damage have revealed a decrease in the amplitude of phasic dopamine signals and significant striatal dysfunction, including changes in the molecular, system, and behavioral functions of the striatum. Dopamine signaling through D1 receptors promotes corticostriatal long-term potentiation (LTP), a critical substrate of these striatal functions. OBJECTIVES: Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if METH-induced dopamine neurotoxicity would impair D1 receptor-dependent striatal LTP in mice. METHODS: Mice were treated with a METH binge regimen (4 × 10 mg/kg d,l-methamphetamine, s.c.) that recapitulates all of the known METH-induced neurotoxic effects observed in humans, including dopamine toxicity. Three weeks later, acute brain slices containing either the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) or dorsolateral striatum (DLS) were prepared, and plasticity was assessed using white matter, high-frequency stimulation (HFS), and striatal extracellular electrophysiology. RESULTS: Under these conditions, LTP was induced in brain slices containing the DMS from saline-pretreated mice, but not mice with METH-induced neurotoxicity. Furthermore, the LTP observed in DMS slices from saline-pretreated mice was blocked by the dopamine D1 receptor antagonist SCH23390, indicating that this LTP is dopamine D1 receptor-dependent. Finally, acute in vivo treatment of METH-pretreated mice with bupropion (50 mg/kg, i.p.) promoted LTP in DMS slices. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these studies demonstrate that METH-induced neurotoxicity impairs dopamine D1 receptor-dependent LTP within the DMS and that the FDA-approved drug bupropion restores induction of striatal LTP in mice with METH-induced dopamine neurotoxicity.

Spontaneous recurrent seizures in an intra-amygdala kainate microinjection model of temporal lobe epilepsy are differentially sensitive to antiseizure drugs.

The discovery and development of novel antiseizure drugs (ASDs) that are effective in controlling pharmacoresistant spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRSs) continues to represent a significant unmet clinical need. The Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program (ETSP) has undertaken efforts to address this need by adopting animal models that represent the salient features of human pharmacoresistant epilepsy and employing these models for preclinical testing of investigational ASDs. One such model that has garnered increased interest in recent years is the mouse variant of the Intra-Amygdala Kainate (IAK) microinjection model of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE). In establishing a version of this model, several methodological variables were evaluated for their effect(s) on pertinent quantitative endpoints. Although administration of a benzodiazepine 40 min after kainate (KA) induced status epilepticus (SE) is commonly used to improve survival, data presented here demonstrates similar outcomes (mortality, hippocampal damage, latency periods, and 90-day SRS natural history) between mice given midazolam and those that were not. Using a version of this model that did not interrupt SE with a benzodiazepine, a 90-day natural history study was performed and survival, latency periods, SRS frequencies and durations, and SRS clustering data were quantified. Finally, an important step towards model adoption is to assess the sensitivities or resistances of SRSs to a panel of approved and clinically used ASDs. Accordingly, the following ASDs were evaluated for their effects on SRSs in these mice: phenytoin (20 mg/kg, b.i.d.), carbamazepine (30 mg/kg, t.i.d.), valproate (240 mg/kg, t.i.d.), diazepam (4 mg/kg, b.i.d.), and phenobarbital (25 and 50 mg/kg, b.i.d.). Valproate, diazepam, and phenobarbital significantly attenuated SRS frequency relative to vehicle controls at doses devoid of observable adverse behavioral effects. Only diazepam significantly increased seizure freedom. Neither phenytoin nor carbamazepine significantly altered SRS frequency or freedom under these experimental conditions. These data demonstrate that SRSs in this IAK model of MTLE are pharmacoresistant to two representative sodium channel-inhibiting ASDs (phenytoin and carbamazepine) and partially sensitive to GABA receptor modulating ASDs (diazepam and phenobarbital) or a mixed-mechanism ASD (valproate). Accordingly, this model is being incorporated into the NINDS-funded ETSP testing platform for treatment resistant epilepsy.

Screening of prototype antiseizure and anti-inflammatory compounds in the Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus model of epilepsy.

OBJECTIVE: Infection with Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) in C57Bl/6J mice results in handling-induced seizures and is useful for evaluating compounds effective against infection-induced seizures. However, to date only a few compounds have been evaluated in this model, and a comprehensive study of antiseizure medications (ASMs) has not yet been performed. Furthermore, as the TMEV infection produces marked neuroinflammation, an evaluation of prototype anti-inflammatory compounds is needed as well. METHODS: Male C57Bl/6J mice were inoculated with TMEV (day 0) followed by daily administrations of test compounds (day 3-7) and subsequent handling sessions (day 3-7). Doses of ASMs, comprising several mechanistic classes, were selected based on previously published data demonstrating the effect of these compounds in reducing seizures in the 6 Hz model of pharmacoresistant seizures. Doses of anti-inflammatory compounds, comprising several mechanistic classes, were selected based on published evidence of reduction of inflammation or inflammation-related endpoints. RESULTS: Several prototype ASMs reduced acute seizures following TMEV infection: lacosamide, phenytoin, ezogabine, phenobarbital, tiagabine, gabapentin, levetiracetam, topiramate, and sodium valproate. Of these, phenobarbital and sodium valproate had the greatest effect (>95% seizure burden reduction). Prototype anti-inflammatory drugs celecoxib, dexamethasone, and prednisone also moderately reduced seizure burden. SIGNIFICANCE: The TMEV model is utilized by the Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program (ETSP) as a tool for evaluation of novel compounds. Compounds reducing seizures in the TMEV comprise distinct mechanistic classes, some with mechanisms of action that extend beyond traditional ASMs.

Distribution and Genetic Diversity of Hepatitis E Virus in Wild and Domestic Rabbits in Australia.

In 2020, Hepatitis E virus (HEV) was detected for the first time in Australian rabbits. To improve our understanding of the genetic diversity and distribution of the virus, 1635 rabbit liver samples from locations across Australia were screened via RT-qPCR for HEV. HEV genomes were amplified and sequenced from 48 positive samples. Furthermore, we tested 380 serum samples from 11 locations across Australia for antibodies against HEV. HEV was detected in rabbits from all states and territories, except the Northern Territory. Seroprevalence varied between locations (from 0% to 22%), demonstrating that HEV is widely distributed in rabbit populations across Australia. Phylogenetic analyses showed that Australian HEV sequences are genetically diverse and that HEV was likely introduced into Australia independently on several occasions. In summary, this study broadens our understanding of the genetic diversity of rabbit HEV globally and shows that the virus is endemic in both domestic and wild rabbit populations in Australia.

Development of an antiseizure drug screening platform for Dravet syndrome at the NINDS contract site for the Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program.

OBJECTIVE: Dravet syndrome (DS) is a rare but catastrophic genetic epilepsy, with 80% of patients carrying a mutation in the SCN1A gene. Currently, no antiseizure drug (ASD) exists that adequately controls seizures. In the clinic, individuals with DS often present first with a febrile seizure and, subsequently, generalized tonic-clonic seizures that can continue throughout life. To facilitate the development of ASDs for DS, the contract site of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program (ETSP) has evaluated a mouse model of DS using the conditional knock-in Scn1aA1783V/WT mouse. METHODS: Survival rates and temperature thresholds for Scn1aA1783V/WT were determined. Prototype ASDs were administered via intraperitoneal injections at the time-to-peak effect, which was previously determined, prior to the induction of hyperthermia-induced seizures. ASDs were considered effective if they significantly increased the temperature at which Scn1aA1783V/WT mice had seizures. RESULTS: Approximately 50% of Scn1aA1783V/WT survive to adulthood and all have hyperthermia-induced seizures. The results suggest that hyperthermia-induced seizures in this model of DS are highly refractory to a battery of ASDs. Exceptions were clobazam, tiagabine, levetiracetam, and the combination of clobazam and valproic acid with add-on stiripentol, which elevated seizure thresholds. SIGNIFICANCE: Overall, the data demonstrate that the proposed model for DS is suitable for screening novel compounds for the ability to block hyperthermia-induced seizures and that heterozygous mice can be evaluated repeatedly over the course of several weeks, allowing for higher throughput screening.

Evaluation of subchronic administration of antiseizure drugs in spontaneously seizing rats.

OBJECTIVE: Approximately 30% of patients with epilepsy do not experience full seizure control on their antiseizure drug (ASD) regimen. Historically, screening for novel ASDs has relied on evaluating efficacy following a single administration of a test compound in either acute electrical or chemical seizure induction. However, the use of animal models of spontaneous seizures and repeated administration of test compounds may better differentiate novel compounds. Therefore, this approach has been instituted as part of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program screening paradigm for pharmacoresistant epilepsy. METHODS: Rats were treated with intraperitoneal kainic acid to induce status epilepticus and subsequent spontaneous recurrent seizures. After 12 weeks, rats were enrolled in drug screening studies. Using a 2-week crossover design, selected ASDs were evaluated for their ability to protect against spontaneous seizures, using a video-electroencephalographic monitoring system and automated seizure detection. Sixteen clinically available compounds were administered at maximally tolerated doses in this model. Dose intervals (1-3 treatments/d) were selected based on known half-lives for each compound. RESULTS: Carbamazepine (90 mg/kg/d), phenobarbital (30 mg/kg/d), and ezogabine (15 mg/kg/d) significantly reduced seizure burden at the doses evaluated. In addition, a dose-response study of topiramate (20-600 mg/kg/d) demonstrated that this compound reduced seizure burden at both therapeutic and supratherapeutic doses. However, none of the 16 ASDs conferred complete seizure freedom during the testing period at the doses tested. SIGNIFICANCE: Despite reductions in seizure burden, the lack of full seizure freedom for any ASD tested suggests that this screening paradigm may be useful for testing novel compounds with potential utility in pharmacoresistant epilepsy.

Discovery of the First Vitamin K Analogue as a Potential Treatment of Pharmacoresistant Seizures.

Despite the availability of more than 25 antiseizure drugs on the market, approximately 30% of patients with epilepsy still suffer from seizures. Thus, the epilepsy therapy market has a great need for a breakthrough drug that will aid pharmacoresistant patients. In our previous study, we discovered a vitamin K analogue, 2h, which displayed modest antiseizure activity in zebrafish and mouse seizure models. However, there are limitations to this compound due to its pharmacokinetic profile. In this study, we develop a new series of vitamin K analogues by modifying the structure of 2h. Among these, compound 3d shows full protection in a rodent pharmacoresistant seizure model with limited rotarod motor toxicity and favorable pharmacokinetic properties. Furthermore, the brain/plasma concentration ratio of 3d indicates its excellent permeability into the brain. The resulting data shows that 3d can be further developed as a potential antiseizure drug in the clinic.

Interleukin-33 Amplifies Human Mast Cell Activities Induced by Complement Anaphylatoxins.

Both, aberrant mast cell responses and complement activation contribute to allergic diseases. Since mast cells are highly responsive to C3a and C5a, while Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a potent mast cell activator, we hypothesized that IL-33 critically regulates mast cell responses to complement anaphylatoxins. We sought to understand whether C3a and C5a differentially activate primary human mast cells, and probe whether IL-33 regulates C3a/C5a-induced mast cell activities. Primary human mast cells were generated from peripheral blood precursors or isolated from healthy human lung tissue, and mast cell complement receptor expression, degranulation, mediator release, phosphorylation patterns, and calcium flux were assessed. Human mast cells of distinct origin express constitutively higher levels of C3aR1 than C5aR1, and both receptors are downregulated by anaphylatoxins. While C3a is a potent mast cell degranulation inducer, C5a is a weaker secretagogue with more delayed effects. Importantly, IL-33 potently enhances the human mast cell reactivity to C3a and C5a (degranulation, cytokine and chemokine release), independent of changes in C3a or C5a receptor expression or the level of Ca2+ influx. Instead, this reflects differential dynamics of intracellular signaling such as ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Since primary human mast cells respond differentially to anaphylatoxin stimulation, and that IL-33 is a key regulator of mast cell responses to complement anaphylatoxins, this is likely to aggravate Th2 immune responses. This newly identified cross-regulation may be important for controlling exacerbated complement- and mast cell-dependent Th2 responses and thus provides an additional rationale for targeting anti-IL33 therapeutically in allergic diseases.

The current approach of the Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program contract site for identifying improved therapies for the treatment of pharmacoresistant seizures in epilepsy.

The Epilepsy Therapy Screening Program (ETSP), formerly known as the Anticonvulsant Screening Program (ASP), has played an important role in the preclinical evaluation of many of the antiseizure drugs (ASDs) that have been approved by the FDA and thus made available for the treatment of seizures. Recent changes to the animal models used at the contract site of the ETSP at the University of Utah have been implemented in an attempt to better model the unmet clinical needs of people with pharmacoresistant epilepsy and thus identify improved therapies. In this review, we describe the changes that have occurred over the last several years in the screening approach used at the contract site and, in particular, detail the pharmacology associated with several of the animal models and assays that are either new to the program or have been recently characterized in more depth. There is optimism that the refined approach used by the ETSP contract site, wherein etiologically relevant models that include those with spontaneous seizures are used, will identify novel, potentially disease modifying therapies for people with pharmacoresistant epilepsy and those at risk for developing epilepsy. This article is part of the special issue entitled 'New Epilepsy Therapies for the 21st Century - From Antiseizure Drugs to Prevention, Modification and Cure of Epilepsy'.

The relationship between reported domestic canine parvovirus cases and wild canid distribution.

Canine parvovirus (CPV) is an important and often fatal pathogen of domestic dogs. It is resistant in the environment and cross-species transmission has been indicated in some canid populations, but never in Australia. The aim of this study was to determine if an association exists between 1. reported CPV cases in domestic dogs, and 2. the wild canid distribution in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Reported CPV cases, and reports of the presence of wild dogs and the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), were extracted from a voluntary surveillance database and a voluntary pest reporting system, respectively. A total of 1,984 CPV cases in domestic dogs, and 3,593 fox and 3,075 wild dog sightings were reported between 2011 and 2016. Postcodes in which CPV cases were reported were significantly (P = 0.0002) more likely to report wild dogs (odds ratio 2.07, 95% CI 1.41-3.03). Overall, CPV cases were significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with both fox reports (rSP 0.225) and wild dog reports (rSP 0.247). The strength of association varied by geographical region and year; the strongest correlations were found in the mid-North Coast region (rSP 0.607 for wild dogs) and in 2016 (rSP 0.481 for foxes). Further serological and virological testing is required to confirm the apparent and plausible association between domestic CPV cases and wild canid distribution found in this study.

Valuing antibiotics: The role of the hospital clinician.

The global public health threat of antibiotic-resistant infections as well as the lack of new treatments in clinical development is a critical issue. Reasons for this include diminished commercial incentives for pharmaceutical companies to develop new antibiotics, which part-reflects a shift in antibiotic marketing paradigm from broad deployment to targeted therapy in relatively small patient populations. Such changes are encouraged by antimicrobial stewardship (AMS). Other factors include a lack of recognition in the traditional assessment of new antibiotics by regulators, health technology assessors and payers of the broad range of benefits of new agents, particularly their value to health care, economies and society. Recognising the seriousness of the situation, there have been recent changes and proposals by regulators for modification of the assessment process to accommodate a broader range of acceptable data supporting new drug applications. There is also increasing recognition by some payers of the societal benefit of new antibiotics and the need for financial incentives for those developing high-priority antibiotics. However, progress is slow, with recent publications focusing on industry and strategic perspectives rather than clinical implications. In this opinion piece, we therefore focus on clinicians and the practical steps they can take to drive and contribute to increasing awareness and understanding of the value of antibiotics. This includes identifying and gathering appropriate alternative data sources, educating on AMS and prescribing habits, and contributing to international antibiotic susceptibility surveillance models.