From Deutsche Zeitschrift to International journal of legal medicine-100 years of legal medicine through the lens of journal articles, Part 4: International journal of legal medicine from 1990 to 2022.

This is the fourth and final paper in a series related to the analysis of articles published in this journal during its first 100 years of activity. This article covers the time span from 1990 to 2022. It is important to note that, given the period covered by this analysis, it does not aim to provide a historical overview but rather an examination of the most recent trends in our discipline compared to the past. Between 1990 (Volume 104) and 2022 (Volume 136), 4004 articles were published in the International Journal of Legal Medicine (IJLM) across 33 volumes. This corresponds to 53% of all the articles published since the launch of the journal. When compared to the period from 1970 to 1990, some categories no longer appear to be as relevant (e.g., sexual medicine, 1 article; social medicine, 0 articles; biography, 3 articles; history, 4 articles). Conversely, the most recent period has shown an increasing importance in forensic genetics (1388 articles) and the emergence of new significant topics that merit their own classification, such as age estimation (286 articles), forensic anthropology (189 articles), forensic imaging (150 articles), and forensic entomology (90 articles).

From Deutsche Zeitschrift to International Journal of Legal Medicine-100 years of legal medicine through the lens of journal articles : Part 3: Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin-Journal of Legal Medicine from 1970 to 1990.

From volume 67 (1970) onwards, the journal appeared under the new bilingual title Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin-Journal of Legal Medicine. The editorial board was expanded and internationalised. From 1970 to 1990, 1416 articles were published in 36 volumes. 1036 articles were in German and 380 in English. The authors of 411 articles came from non-German-speaking countries. Compared to the periods under review in the first two parts of our article series, the proportion of papers on forensic genetics increased significantly between 1970 and 1990, with a small increase in publications on the identification of unknown dead bodies. An opposite trend was observed in the articles on forensic psychiatry and psychology, sexual medicine and social medicine. This development reflects a further sharpening of the discipline's profile.

From Deutsche Zeitschrift to International Journal of Legal Medicine-100 years of legal medicine through the lens of journal articles : Part 2: Deutsche Zeitschrift für die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin from 1948 to 1969.

The interruption of the publication of the Deutsche Zeitschrift für die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin due to the war ended with volume 39 for the years 1948/1949. Until volume 66/1969, the journal appeared unchanged under the historical title. The 912 publications contained in the 28 volumes of these two decades cover topics from the main fields of forensic medicine, but also from related and unrelated disciplines. The topic-specific analysis of the publications shows a shift of the research focus in the German institutes since the post-war period. This is most evident in the decline in the number of publications from the fields of scientific and technical criminalistics as well as forensic psychiatry and psychology. An opposite trend with a significant increase in scientific papers was observed in alcohology, forensic genetics and traffic medicine. While the evaluated publications on most topics contain new findings that are still valid today, the use of blood group characteristics for forensic purposes came to an end as a result of the introduction of DNA analysis.

From Deutsche Zeitschrift to International Journal of Legal Medicine-100 years of legal medicine through the lens of journal articles : Part 1: Deutsche Zeitschrift für die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin from 1922 to 1944.

From its launc h in 1922 to the end of the Second World War, the Deutsche Zeitschrift für die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin spanned 38 volumes. The 1762 papers contained in those volumes reflect contemporary interests and include many papers from peripheral fields and non-medico-legal disciplines. Publications concerned with issues outside core legal medicine fields in particular allow two distinct tendencies in the development of German institutes of legal medicine to be discerned. Firstly, there is a focus on the psychological and psychiatric aspects of the discipline. Secondly, there is tendency towards a scientific-criminalistic outlook. The fatal consequences of the Nazi seizure of power in 1933 did not spare the sciences. For legal medicine, a discipline with close links to the state, it is unsurprising that fundamental changes to the political system had a significant impact on subject matter. Leaving aside articles notable principally for their ideological content, our analysis of the 38 volumes shows that the papers examined contain new insights into many subjects, some of which are still valid today.

[A literature review on the Messerer's fracture]. / Über den Messerer-Bruch--eine Literaturstudie.

The characteristic wedge-shaped fracture was first described by Messerer (1880) and Bruns (1884) after performing experiments on long bones. Not much later, Messerer (1885) formulated the forensic significance of the direct bending fracture for the detection of the location and direction of blunt impact trauma. He developed the basic biomechanical theory of the origin of this fracture type, which is therefore called Messerer's fracture in the German-speaking world. In the following decades, the findings concerning the origin, specificity and forensic usability of Messerer's fractures were confirmed and supplemented by experiments and case studies. For forensic examinations, it is important to bear in mind that there are exceptions to the rule according to which the level of the wedge-shaped fracture corresponds exactly to the point of impact. The possibility of "false" or "reversed" wedges must also be considered. Already in the 19th century, authors had pointed out the mechanism of indirect formation of wedge-shaped bone fragments. That is why a forensic examination always has to consider the investigation results and medical findings in their entirety. Autopsy of traffic victims is of paramount importance. It must include a thorough examination of clothing, skin, soft tissues and skeletal system using special preparation techniques. The examination of bone injuries in living victims also requires special expertise. If properly applied, valuable results can be obtained by the forensic expert from the wedge-shaped fracture. Until recently, Messerer's fracture was a typical injury sustained by pedestrians hit by vehicles with protruding frontal elements. In modern car production, not only the dimensions of cars have been changed, but the front-end structures have also been modified, e. g. by integrated bumpers. These constructional changes are likely to reduce the frequency of narrow points of impact in collisions. However, further research on the frequency and significance of Messerer's fractures in road traffic accident victims is required.

[Walcher's hat brim line rule--a literature review]. / Über die Walcher'sche Hutkrempenregel--eine Literaturstudie.

The first description in the forensic medical literature of a demarcation line for the localization of head injuries resulting from falling to the ground appears in Kratter (1919). Regarding a similar line, Walcher (1931) later introduced the relation to the hat brim (Hutkrempe), which gave the rule its name: the hat brim line rule (Hutkrempenregel). Thenceforth it was supposed to be called Kratter's and Walcher's hat brim line rule (Kratter-Walcher'sche Hutkrempenregel). Over the following decades, not only its content but also the area of application and the definition of the hat brim line rule were repeatedly, and in part significantly, altered. This could be one of the reasons for the confusing diversity of academic opinions about the rule's applicability. Generally, the hat brim line rule should be retained in its original sense: Fall-related injuries do not lie above the hat brim line if the fall occurred from a standing position to the ground, without intermediary blows to the head. If applied in this way, the rule can be a helpful point of orientation for experts. The demarcation line in the original anatomical definition according to Kratter (1919) should also be used henceforth: the line which connects "the frontal eminence, the parietal eminence and the tip of the occipital plate" and lies "somewhat.above the usual saw-line of the calvarium". This line corresponds roughly to the hat brim line as it is understood by hat makers. The hat brim line rule should not be applied with regard to small children, as they show a different falling behaviour due to their disproportionately large and heavy heads. The rule is also in no way applicable to the assessment of injuries from blows, falls from a height (including from stairs) or traffic accidents. There is an urgent need for research as to the applicability of the hat brim line rule in relation to falling backwards, particularly in cases of high alcohol consumption.

[History, present situation and perspectives of forensic age diagnostics of living persons]. / Geschichte, Gegenwart und Perspektiven der forensischen Altersdiagnostik bei lebenden Personen.

Although age estimations of living persons have been carried out for a long time already, the importance of forensic age diagnostics has increased considerably since the beginning of the 1980s. The Study Group on Forensic Age Diagnostics of the German Society of Legal Medicine founded under the chairmanship of Prof. Dr. Gunther Geserick in March 2000 has published recommendations for age assessments in criminal proceedings, in pension matters as well as in civil and asylum proceedings. Based on regular meetings and proficiency tests, this study group makes an important contribution to quality assurance in age assessment. The introduction of radiation-free imaging procedures in age estimation practice is to be expected in the near future.

[About the Geserick sign--a literature study]. / Uber das Geserick-Zeichen--eine Literaturstudie.

Fractures of the medial and basal orbital wall as well as the petrous part of the temporal bone were described first in 1980 by a Berlin-based study group led by Geserick as new cranium findings resulting from a contrecoup mechanism. Experimental and comparative examinations revealed that indirect fractures of the orbital walls are caused by a coup action of the eyeballs, whereas the mechanogenesis of the petrous bone fractures continues to be unclear. The frequently combined occurrence with the orbital sign nonetheless permits an allocation to the contrecoup mechanism. Both signs are important criteria for forensic and clinical assessment of craniocerebral injuries.

Genetic Kinship Investigation from Blood Groups to DNA Markers.

The forensic application of hereditary characteristics became possible after the discovery of human blood groups by Karl Landsteiner in 1901. The foundation for their use in kinship investigation was laid by Emil von Dungern and Ludwig Hirschfeld in 1910 by clarification of the inheritance of the ABO groups. Up to the middle of the 20th century further red cell membrane systems were discovered. From the 1920s Fritz Schiff and Georg Strassmann fought for the introduction of blood groups into forensic kinship investigation. A new era of hemogenetics was opened from 1955 as genetic polymorphisms were described in serum proteins. Starting in 1958 there followed the complex HLA system of white blood cells, which from 1963 was joined by polymophisms in erythrocyte enzymes. Therefore, from the 1980s, it was possible to clarify the majority of kinship cases with a combination of conventional markers. From 1990 to 2000 the conventional markers were gradually replaced by the more effective DNA markers. Simultaneously typing shifted from the phenotype level to the genotype level. The genomic structure of conventional genetic markers could also now be explained. As a reflection of scientific progress the legal situation also changed, particularly in the form of the official guidelines for kinship investigation.

[Puppe's rule--a literature review]. / Uber die Puppe'sche Regel--eine Literaturstudie.

As early as 1903, it was pointed out by Puppe that it is possible to determine the sequence of injuries in skull fractures caused by blows to the head: the second fracture ends at the point where a break in cohesion is already present. This finding was confirmed by tests carried out by other forensic pathologists. It soon became clear that the rule also applies to gunshot fractures. In the case of gunshot injuries, it is even possible to make more detailed statements. However, the applicability of Puppe's rule is limited by incomplete ossification or ossification disorders. The priority rule is also found in English-language literature, but without the name of the author who first described it.

[Negligent homicide caused by exhaust gas escaping from a manipulated chimney]. / Fahrlässige Tötung durch Abgas aus einem manipulierten Schornstein.

A chimney built and operated according to the instructions is supposed to ensure that the combustion gases coming from the fireplace can escape safely. If the operational reliability is impaired, this presents a risk of acute poisoning. The report deals with a negligently caused carbon monoxide poisoning of a married couple as a consequence of improper installation of a cover of the chimney opening. Various causes of fatal poisoning due to defective exhaust systems are discussed in connection with the presented case report.

[The Berlin morgue of 1886--the 125-year-old morgue of Berlin-Mitte]. / Die Berliner Morgue von 1886--125 Jahre Leichenschauhaus in Berlin-mitte.

On 1 March 1886, a new morgue built along the lines of the Paris morgue, was opened in Berlin, Germany. Experts from many European countries were interested in the new building with its modern design and equipment. As the morgue, the Institute of Legal Medicine of the Berlin University accommodated in the same building also acquired international reputation. However, neither the scientific nor the economic achievements of this long-standing institution could prevent the closure of this historic site in Berlin-Mitte after almost 125 years.

[Medicolegal identification of victims in mass disasters using the example of aircraft accidents]. / Rechtsmedizinische Identifizierungsaufgaben bei Katastrophen am Beispiel von Flugunfällen.

In mass disasters, the main task of the medicolegal expert is to support the victims' identification. As such events are rare, the knowledge obtained during previous operations should be evaluated and published to improve the quality and effectiveness of the identification work in future disasters. This report describes the experience gained at the Institute of Forensic Medicine of the Humboldt University in Berlin during the identification of the victims of three aircraft accidents (1972, 1986, 1989). The advantages and disadvantages of the identification methods used are discussed. Medicolegal experts should make themselves familiar with available experiences to be adequately prepared for the responsible task of identifying the victims in an emergency.

Surface biofunctionalization and production of miniaturized sensor structures using aerosol printing technologies.

The work described in this paper demonstrates that very small protein and DNA structures can be applied to various substrates without denaturation using aerosol printing technology. This technology allows high-resolution deposition of various nanoscaled metal and biological suspensions. Before printing, metal and biological suspensions were formulated and then nebulized to form an aerosol which is aerodynamically focused on the printing module of the system in order to achieve precise structuring of the nanoscale material on a substrate. In this way, it is possible to focus the aerosol stream at a distance of about 5 mm from the printhead to the surface. This technology is useful for printing fluorescence-marked proteins and printing enzymes without affecting their biological activity. Furthermore, higher molecular weight DNA can be printed without shearing. The advantages, such as printing on complex, non-planar 3D structured surfaces, and disadvantages of the aerosol printing technology are also discussed and are compared with other printing technologies. In addition, miniaturized sensor structures with line thicknesses in the range of a few micrometers are fabricated by applying a silver sensor structure to glass. After sintering using an integrated laser or in an oven process, electrical conductivity is achieved within the sensor structure. Finally, we printed BSA in small micrometre-sized areas within the sensor structure using the same deposition system. The aerosol printing technology combined with material development offers great advantages for future-oriented applications involving biological surface functionalization on small areas. This is important for innovative biomedical micro-device development and for production solutions which bridge the disciplines of biology and electronics.

[Tardieu's spots and asphyxia--a literature study]. / Uber die Tardieu'schen Flecke--eine Literaturstudie.

Subpleural, epicardial and pericranial ecchymoses have been described in cases of suffocation since the 18th century. In the 19th century, great diagnostic importance was attributed to ecchymoses. Tardieu was the most determined defender of the specificity of ecchymoses for suffocations. He thought that he could diagnose violent suffocation by means of ecchymoses and claimed that he was able to differentiate violent suffocation from other unnatural causes of death (hanging, choking, strangulation, and drowning). Other physicians, among them numerous German medical examiners, proved Tardieu's opinions wrong by means of observations and animal studies. The most dedicated disputant against Tardieu's false doctrines was Liman. According to today's knowledge of pathophysiology, the haemorrhages concerned cannot have a specificity for suffocation or even a specific form of suffocation. Therefore, the confusing term of "suffocation haemorrages" should be avoided.

Unassisted smothering in a pillow.

We report the case of a 33-year-old man admitted to a psychiatric hospital because of paranoid schizophrenia. The man was found dead lying in his bed with the face pressed against a pillow and with elevated buttocks. The autopsy did not reveal a cause of death. The histological findings displayed the signs of the haemorrhagic-dysoric syndrome with acute emphysema; these findings are pathognomonic of obstructive asphyxia. The adverse effects of the neuroleptics demonstrated by the toxicological findings may have accelerated the loss of consciousness and facilitated the unusual position of the body. On the basis of the clinical history, the autopsy findings, the histological features and the toxicological results, asphyxia due to smothering was diagnosed as the cause of death.

[Medico-legal study on crashes of fighter planes of the National People's Army]. / Rechtsmedizinische Betrachtungen über Abstürze von Jagdflugzeugen der NVA.

In the years 1974 to 1990, 39 pilots died in 34 crashes of fighter planes of the National People's Army; 32 victims were examined forensically. For the present study all autopsy protocols and examination reports available in the German Federal Military Archives in Freiburg could be evaluated. Both officer cadets and experienced pilots of high military ranks were among the victims. The majority of the crashes (24 out of 34) was caused by human failure. Health problems or the use of alcohol and medications did not play a role in the aircraft accidents. All killed pilots were identified. The injury patterns after fatal ejection are different from the patterns seen after impact with a plane. Such patterns of findings are meaningful in the reconstruction of unknown sequences of events leading to the accidents and for the assessment of the pilots' capacity to act at the moment of the incident

[Werkgartner's muzzle imprint mark--a literature study]. / Uber die Werkgartner'sche Stanzmarke--eine Literaturstudie.

Since Werkgartner described and correctly interpreted the muzzle imprint mark around the gunshot entrance wound in 1922, this finding has been generally accepted as a sign of a contact shot. In further studies, it could finally be clarified that the muzzle imprint mark is caused by the expansive power of the powder gases with pressure on and abrasion of the skin at the muzzle (weapon imprint). Its shape depends on the firearm, the ammunition and the anatomical conditions, but does not require a bullet. Examinations under a magnifying glass microscope and histological investigations can complete the macroscopic findings. Occasionally, the muzzle imprint mark requires a certain "drying period" in order to become clearly visible. In rare cases, muzzle imprint marks also form on textiles perforated by the projectile. Characteristically shaped muzzled imprint marks can provide clues to the type of the firearm and its position at the time of discharge.

[Medico-legal autopsies in Berlin from 1999 to 2003]. / Rechtsmedizinische Obduktionen in Berlin von 1999 bis 2003.

This paper presents statistical data on medico-legal autopsies at the three Berlin institutes from 1999 to 2003. With an autopsy frequency of 6.5% in 1999, Berlin was ranking at the top in Germany. The relatively high autopsy rate--compared to other German institutes--led to a higher share of women, a higher mean age of the examined bodies and a higher percentage of cases of natural death. In accordance with studies from other major cities, there were more cases with an unknown cause of death and a higher number of drug victims than in rural areas. The negative consequences of a far too low autopsy rate in Germany regarding legal certainty, the quality of medical care and the validity of the statistics of causes of death are discussed in connection with possible measures to increase the frequency of autopsies.