The Influence of Education and Occupation Type on Birth Cohort Differences in Cognitive Function of Mexican Older Adults.

OBJECTIVES: Mexico's population aging is occurring in the context of social changes such as increased educational attainment and occupational shifts from agriculture to service and industry. The current study compares cognitive function between two birth cohorts of Mexican adults aged 60-76 to determine if population-level changes in education and occupation type contribute to cohort differences in cognitive function. METHODS: We used the Mexican Health and Aging Study to examine adults aged 60-76 in 2001 (men: 2,309; women: 2,761) and 2018 (men: 2,842; women: 3,825). Global cognition was calculated from five measures. Five main lifetime occupation types were created: no main job; agriculture; service; professional; and industrial. Ordinary least squares regression and structural equation models (SEM) were used to examine cohort differences in cognitive functioning. RESULTS: Ordinary least squares models that adjusted for age, community size, and marital status indicated that men and women had higher global cognition in 2018 than 2001 (men: b = 0.44, p < .01; women: b = 0.54, p < .01). These differences were reduced after adjusting for education and occupation type (men: b = 0.27, p < .01; women: b = 0.37, p < .01). Results from SEM indicated that the indirect effects of education on cognitive functioning were larger than occupation type for men (education: b = 0.18, p < .05; occupation: b = 0.001, p = .91) and women (education: b = 0.18, p < .05; occupation: b = 0.002, p = .22). DISCUSSION: Cognitive functioning is higher among more recent birth cohorts of older adults in Mexico. These cohort differences are partially mediated by education but not main lifetime occupation. Additional factors may contribute to cohort differences in cognitive function for older adults in Mexico.

Lifetime occupational skill and later-life cognitive function among older adults in the United States, Mexico, India, and South Africa.

INTRODUCTION: We conducted a cross-national comparison of the association between main lifetime occupational skills and later-life cognitive function across four economically and socially distinct countries. METHODS: Data were from population-based studies of aging and their Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocols (HCAPs) in the US, South Africa, India, and Mexico (N = 10,037; Age range: 50 to 105 years; 2016 to 2020). Main lifetime occupational skill was classified according to the International Standard Classification of Occupations. Weighted, adjusted regression models estimated pooled and country-specific associations between main lifetime occupational skill and later-life general cognitive function in men and women. RESULTS: We observed positive gradients between occupational skill and later-life cognitive function for men and women in the US and Mexico, a positive gradient for women but not men in India, and no association for men or women in South Africa. DISCUSSION: Main lifetime occupations may be a source of later-life cognitive reserve, with cross-national heterogeneity in this association. HIGHLIGHTS: No studies have examined cross-national differences in the association of occupational skill with cognition. We used data from Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocols in the US, Mexico, India, and South Africa. The association of occupational skill with cognitive function varies by country and gender.

Does a Reduction in Receiving Assistance With Daily Activities Among Older Adults in Mexico Indicate An Increase in Unmet Needs or a Decrease in Needs for Care?

OBJECTIVES: The percentage of older adults in Mexico with difficulty completing activities of daily living (ADL) who receive assistance from family appears to be decreasing. We compared 2 birth cohorts of older adults in Mexico to investigate whether this trend reflects an increase in unmet caregiving needs or a decrease in the need for care. METHODS: We selected Mexican Health and Aging Study participants aged 60-76 in 2001 (n = 4,805) and 2018 (n = 6,494). ADL tasks were dressing, walking, bathing, getting in and out of bed, and toileting. Participants who reported difficulty with an ADL were asked if anyone helped them with the task. Logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) for cohort differences in ≥1 ADL limitations and help with ≥1 ADL. We used a decomposition analysis to identify participant characteristics that mediated cohort differences in receiving help with ≥1 ADL. RESULTS: The 2018 cohort had higher odds for ≥1 ADL limitations (aOR = 1.85, 95% CI = 1.60-2.14) but lower odds for help with ≥1 ADL (aOR = 0.66, 95% CI = 0.49-0.89). Among participants with ADL disability, the 2018 cohort had fewer living children and a lower prevalence of probable dementia. The lower number of living children and lower prevalence of probable dementia explained 9.34% and 43.7% of the cohort effect on receiving help with ≥1 ADL, respectively. DISCUSSION: The declining percentage of older adults in Mexico with ADL disability receiving assistance may not reflect increasing unmet needs. However, the increased prevalence of ADL disability will increase the number of older adults needing informal care.

20 years of the Mexican Health and Aging Study.

The Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS) is a longitudinal study using a national sample of approximately 15,000 community-dwelling adults aged 50 years old and older in Mexico. Spanning over 20 years (2001-2021), six waves of data collection establish the MHAS as the leading data platform for the study of aging in Latin America.

Determinants of retirement of formal and informal sector workers in Mexico: the role of health and economic security.

OBJECTIVE: We examine the socioeconomic and health drivers of retirement decisions and compare these determinants between formal and informal sector workers in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using data from the Mexican Health and Aging Study 2012 and 2015, we estimate conditional probit models of retirement using sociodemographic, health, health care utilization, health insurance, private pensions, and social security systems covariates. The Institutional Review Board at the University of Southern California reviewed and approved the research (IRB # UP-15-00023). RESULTS: We find that the social security systems are an important determinant for retirement age for formal sector workers. The informal sector workers, who lack access to retirement benefits of the social security system, make retirement decisions mainly based on health and access to health insurance through social security. CONCLUSION: Despite the lack of access to social security benefits, informal sector workers do not respond strongly to socioeconomic factors in determining the timing of retirement. Strengthening access to better health care services could improve health, extend working lives, and promote healthy aging for workers in the informal sector.

The impact of insomnia symptoms on obesity among Mexicans aged 50 and older.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between insomnia and obesity in Mexican adults aged 50 and older. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used data from the Mexican Health and Aging Study (2015-2018). Self-reported insomnia was measured using the modified insomnia severity index with scores ranging from zero to six. Obesity was categorized using body mass index (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2). We used generalized estimating equations to assess the association between insomnia and obesity over three years. RESULTS: Insomnia was associated with obesity (odds ratio [OR]: 1.06, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01,1.11), among those with no obesity at baseline. Among those with obesity, insomnia was not associated with changes in BMI. Lastly, obesity was not associated with changes in insomnia symptoms. CONCLUSION: This work highlights the association between insomnia and obesity among older Mexican adults and demonstrates the importance of further studies on the effects of insomnia within this population.

Rural and urban differences in lifetime occupation and its influence on mortality among Mexican adults.

OBJECTIVE: To determine how primary lifetime occupation type is associated with mortality, and how the relationship varies by rural and urban dwelling. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data come from 2001-2018 Mexican Health and Aging Study (adults aged 50+, n=11 094). We created five occupation categories. Cox proportional hazard models predicted mortality using baseline covariates. RESULTS: In both rural and urban settings, participants with manual jobs, such as agriculture and production/industrial jobs, had an increased risk of mortality compared to those with administrative/professional jobs. In urban settings, participants in the domestic/service and no main job categories had higher risk of mortality than those in the administrative/professional category. For men these differences remained, but not for women. CONCLUSION: In a context of rural and urban demographic shifts, it is crucial to consider the implications that occupation as a socioeconomic factor can have on health and to identify the most vulnerable groups.

Cognitive life expectancy by educational attainment in Mexican adults aged 60 and older.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate cognitively healthy life expectancy (CHLE), cognitive impairment life expectancy (CILE), and dementia life expectancy (DLE) in Mexican adults aged 60 and older stratified by educational attainment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The data were obtained from Waves 1 (2001) to 5 (2018) of the Mexican Health and Aging Study. The life expectancy was estimated using a multistate life table analysis. RESULTS: CHLE at age 60 increased with higher educational attainment and ranged from 17.9 to 24.4 years in female participants, and 17.2 to 21.3 in male participants. The CILE and DLE decreased with greater educational attainment. The CILE ranged from 0.7 to 2.8 years in female participants and 0.7 to 2.6 in male participants. CONCLUSIONS: Older adults in Mexico with higher education live more years with good cognitive health and fewer years with cognitive impairment and dementia. Education has a stronger effect on the length of cognitively healthy life expectancies than on total life expectancies.

Assigning lifetime occupation domains for older Mexicans: MHAS-O*NET linkage protocol.

OBJECTIVE: We developed a MHAS (Mexican Health and Aging Study) and O*NET (Occupational Information Network) linkage to allow global researchers using MHAS data to assign lifetime occupation domains for older Mexicans. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Three bilingual raters independently matched 440 records with 132 unique occupation codes from the 2012 MHAS. We used a modified Delphi technique to reach agreements. To assess reliability, we compared the distribution of observations between the MHAS file and the MHAS-O*NET linked file across five job categories (upper white collar, lower white collar, upper blue collar, low blue collar, and agriculture/fishing/forestry). The Institutional Review Board at the University of Texas Medical Branch reviewed and approved the research (IRB # 21-0268). RESULTS: Using the developed 1:1 MHAS-ONET linkage, consistency between MHAS and ONET was 97.4% across the five job categories. CONCLUSION: This MHAS-O*NET linkage will allow researchers to analyze the association between lifetime occupation and multiple dimensions of health, functionality, and retirement determinants for a low-middle income country with a large proportion of workers in the informal sector.

COVID-19 And Mental Health Outcomes Of Older Adults: Evidence From Mexico.

Estimates using data from the Mexican Health and Aging Study, a national longitudinal sample of older adults in Mexico, show elevated risk for negative mental health outcomes for those experiencing COVID-19 infection or major COVID-19-related adverse events. Predicted elevated probabilities were greater for a major adverse event than for COVID-19 infection, and they varied across sociodemographic groups defined by age, sex, education, and urban-rural residence.

Harmonisation of later-life cognitive function across national contexts: results from the Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocols.

BACKGROUND: The Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol (HCAP) is an innovative instrument for cross-national comparisons of later-life cognitive function, yet its suitability across diverse populations is unknown. We aimed to harmonise general and domain-specific cognitive scores from HCAP studies across six countries, and evaluate reliability and criterion validity of the resulting harmonised scores. METHODS: We statistically harmonised general and domain-specific cognitive function scores across publicly available HCAP partner studies in China, England, India, Mexico, South Africa, and the USA conducted between October, 2015 and January, 2020. Participants missing all cognitive test items in a given HCAP were excluded. We used an item banking approach that leveraged common cognitive test items across studies and tests that were unique to studies. We generated harmonised factor scores to represent a person's relative functioning on the latent factors of general cognitive function, memory, executive function, orientation, and language using confirmatory factor analysis. We evaluated the marginal reliability, or precision, of the factor scores using test information plots. Criterion validity of factor scores was assessed by regressing the scores on age, gender, and educational attainment in a multivariable analysis adjusted for these characteristics. FINDINGS: We included 21 144 participants from the six HCAP studies of interest (11 480 women [54·3%] and 9664 [45·7%] men), with a median age of 69 years (IQR 64-76). Confirmatory factor analysis models of cognitive function in each country fit well: 31 (88·6%) of 35 models had adequate or good fit to the data (comparative fit index ≥0·90, root mean square error of approximation ≤0·08, and standardised root mean residual ≤0·08). Marginal reliability of the harmonised general cognitive function factor was high (>0·9) for 19 044 (90·1%) of 21 144 participant scores across the six countries. Marginal reliability of the harmonised factor was above 0·85 for 19 281 (91·2%) of 21 142 participant factor scores for memory, 7805 (41·0%) of 19 015 scores for executive function, 3446 (16·3%) of 21 103 scores for orientation, and 4329 (20·5%) of 21 113 scores for language. In each country, general cognitive function scores were lower with older age and higher with greater levels of educational attainment. INTERPRETATION: We statistically harmonised cognitive function measures across six large population-based studies of cognitive ageing. These harmonised cognitive function scores empirically reflect comparable domains of cognitive function among older adults across the six countries, have high reliability, and are useful for population-based research. This work provides a foundation for international networks of researchers to make improved inferences and direct comparisons of cross-national associations of risk factors for cognitive outcomes in pooled analyses. FUNDING: US National Institute on Aging.

Education and cognitive function among older adults in Brazil and Mexico.

Education is protective against cognitive impairment. We used nationally representative data from Mexico and Brazil to assess the association between education and cognitive function. The sample included adults ≥ 50 years from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Aging (ELSI) and the Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS). Participants were classified as cognitively impaired or not impaired. We used logistic regression models to estimate the association between education and cognitive function. Education level was higher in MHAS than in ELSI. Participants with at least 1 year of education were less likely to have cognitive impairment than those with no formal education in both cohorts. Men in ELSI had higher odds for cognitive impairment compared to men in MHAS. In both cohorts, higher educational level was associated with lower odds of cognitive impairment compared to no formal education. Sex was an effect modifier in MHAS but not in ELSI. HIGHLIGHTS: Cognitive test batteries were harmonized using a regression-based approach.Even very low levels of education were associated with reduced odds of cognitive impairment compared to no formal education.Brazilians were more likely to have cognitive impairment than Mexicans given the same education level.The differences in the association of education with cognition between Brazil and Mexico were only observed among men.

Memory and language cognitive data harmonization across the United States and Mexico.

INTRODUCTION: We used cultural neuropsychology-informed procedures to derive and validate harmonized scores representing memory and language across population-based studies in the United States and Mexico. METHODS: Data were from the Health and Retirement Study Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol (HRS-HCAP) and the Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS) Ancillary Study on Cognitive Aging (Mex-Cog). We statistically co-calibrated memory and language domains and performed differential item functioning (DIF) analysis using a cultural neuropsychological approach. We examined relationships among harmonized scores, age, and education. RESULTS: We included 3170 participants from the HRS-HCAP (Mage = 76.6 [standard deviation (SD): 7.5], 60% female) and 2042 participants from the Mex-Cog (Mage = 68.1 [SD: 9.0], 59% female). Five of seven memory items and one of twelve language items demonstrated DIF by study. Harmonized memory and language scores showed expected associations with age and education. DISCUSSION: A cultural neuropsychological approach to harmonization facilitates the generation of harmonized measures of memory and language function in cross-national studies. HIGHLIGHTS: We harmonized memory and language scores across studies in the United States and Mexico.A cultural neuropsychological approach to data harmonization was used.Harmonized scores showed minimal measurement differences between cohorts.Future work can use these harmonized scores for cross-national studies of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias.

Harmonization of Later-Life Cognitive Function Across National Contexts: Results from the Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocols (HCAPs).

Background: The Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol (HCAP) is an innovative instrument for cross-national comparisons of later-life cognitive function, yet its suitability across diverse populations is unknown. We aimed to harmonize general and domain-specific cognitive scores from HCAPs across six countries, and evaluate precision and criterion validity of the resulting harmonized scores. Methods: We statistically harmonized general and domain-specific cognitive function across the six publicly available HCAP partner studies in the United States, England, India, Mexico, China, and South Africa (N=21,141). We used an item banking approach that leveraged common cognitive test items across studies and tests that were unique to studies, as identified by a multidisciplinary expert panel. We generated harmonized factor scores for general and domain- specific cognitive function using serially estimated graded-response item response theory (IRT) models. We evaluated precision of the factor scores using test information plots and criterion validity using age, gender, and educational attainment. Findings: IRT models of cognitive function in each country fit well. We compared measurement reliability of the harmonized general cognitive function factor across each cohort using test information plots; marginal reliability was high (r> 0·90) for 93% of respondents across six countries. In each country, general cognitive function scores were lower with older ages and higher with greater levels of educational attainment. Interpretation: We statistically harmonized cognitive function measures across six large, population-based studies of cognitive aging in the US, England, India, Mexico, China, and South Africa. Precision of the estimated scores was excellent. This work provides a foundation for international networks of researchers to make stronger inferences and direct comparisons of cross-national associations of risk factors for cognitive outcomes. Funding: National Institute on Aging (R01 AG070953, R01 AG030153, R01 AG051125, U01 AG058499; U24 AG065182; R01AG051158).

In the wake of a crisis: Caught between housing and healthcare.

Objective: To measure the association between housing insecurity and foregone medication due to cost among Medicare beneficiaries aged 65+ during the Recession. Methods: Data came from Medicare beneficiaries aged 65+ years from the 2006-2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Two-wave housing insecurity changes are evaluated as follows: (i) No insecurity, (ii) Persistent insecurity, (iii) Onset insecurity, and (iv) Onset security. We implemented a series of four weighted longitudinal General Estimating Equation (GEE) models, two minimally adjusted and two fully adjusted models, to estimate the probability of foregone medications due to cost between 2008 and 2012. Results: Our study sample was restricted to non-proxy interviews of non-institutionalized Medicare beneficiaries aged 65+ in the 2006 wave (n = 9936) and their follow up visits (n = 8753; in 2008; n = 7464 in 2010; and n = 6594 in 2012). Results from our fully adjusted model indicated that the odds of foregone medication was 64% higher among individuals experiencing Onset insecurity versus No insecurity in 2008, and also generally larger for individuals experiencing Onset Insecurity versus Persistent Insecurity. Odds of foregone medication was also larger among females, minority versus non-Hispanic white adults, those reporting a chronic condition, those with higher medical expenditures, and those living in the South versus Northeast. Conclusion: This study drew from nationally representative data to elucidate the disparate health and financial impacts of a crisis on Medicare beneficiaries who, despite health insurance coverage, displayed variability in foregone medication patterns. Our findings suggest that the onset of housing insecurity is most closely linked with unexpected acute economic shocks leading households with little time to adapt and forcing trade-offs in their prescription and other needs purchases. Both housing and healthcare policy implications exist from these findings including expansion of low-income housing units and rent relief post-recession as well as wider prescription drug coverage for Medicare adults.

Economic Resources and Health: A Bi-Directional Cycle for Resilience in Old Age.

Objectives: The paper offers an expanded framework for conducting empirical research on resilient aging. Methods: We review the conceptual frameworks for resilient aging and incorporate the role of economic factors as resources that contribute to resilience, in addition to social and psychological factors emphasized in the existing literature. Moreover, the idea of reinforcing cycles of resilience is incorporated in the framework. Existing empirical evidence that supports the conceptual arguments is presented. Results: Examples from Mexico and other low-middle-income countries are included, as well as from high-income countries. Data requirements for applying the conceptual framework in empirical analysis and the state of data availability are examined. We illustrate the measures that are available for this purpose using the Mexican Health and Aging Study. Discussion: We discuss and conclude that the state of the field is rich in data to conduct empirical work on resilience in old age.

Migration, work, and retirement: the case of Mexican-origin populations.

Mexico and the United States both face rapid population aging as well as older populations with high poverty rates. Among the most vulnerable populations of retirement age in either nation are Mexican immigrants to the United States. This work uses data from the U.S. Health and Retirement Study and the Mexican Health and Aging Study to assess retirement decisions among persons born in Mexico and working in either nation as well as such decisions by non-Hispanic Whites in the United States. Social security system incentives matter for the retirement of Mexican immigrants in the U.S. but not for return-migrants in Mexico.

Caregiving to Older Adults With a Physical Limitation: Evidence From the Mexican Health and Aging Study.

Background and Objectives: Many older adults face physical limitations to performing activities of daily life (ADLs) and instrumental activities of daily life (IADLs) and seek help performing them. In Mexico, family caregivers, especially spouses and adult children, traditionally take care of older adults. However, a detailed characterization of the care received has not been thoroughly provided. We sought to identify socioeconomic, demographic, and health-related differences in receiving help among older adults reporting physical limitations. Research Design and Methods: Using the 2012 wave of the Mexican Health and Aging Study, we provided information on adults aged 60 and older who reported one or more physical limitations and whether they received help or not. We estimated 2 logistic regression models to obtain the odds ratios (ORs) of receiving help among individuals with an ADL limitation and those with an IADL limitation. Results: Adults with ADL limitations received, on average, approximately 10.7 hr of assistance per day, whereas those with at least 1 IADL limitation received around 7.7 hr of help per day. Women were more likely to receive help with ADLs than men (OR = 2.35). Individuals with chronic conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, and arthritis also received more help with both ADLs and IADLs. Discussion and Implications: Our work suggests that help received does respond to the care needs of older adults, but future research should focus on the burden of care for caregivers and expand this analysis using a longitudinal data approach.

A cultural neuropsychological approach to harmonization of cognitive data across culturally and linguistically diverse older adult populations.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a cultural neuropsychological approach to prestatistical harmonization of cognitive data across the United States (U.S.) and Mexico with the Harmonized Cognitive Assessment Protocol (HCAP). METHOD: We performed a comprehensive review of the administration, scoring, and coding procedures for each cognitive test item administered across the English and Spanish versions of the HCAP in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) in the U.S. and the Ancillary Study on Cognitive Aging in Mexico (Mex-Cog). For items that were potentially equivalent across studies, we compared each cognitive test item for linguistic and cultural equivalence and classified items as confident or tentative linking items, based on the degree of confidence in their comparability across cohorts and language groups. We evaluated these classifications using differential item functioning techniques. RESULTS: We evaluated 132 test items among 21 cognitive instruments in the HCAP across the HRS and Mex-Cog. We identified 72 confident linking items, 46 tentative linking items, and 14 items that were not comparable across cohorts. Measurement invariance analysis revealed that 64% of the confident linking items and 83% of the tentative linking items showed statistical evidence of measurement differences across cohorts. CONCLUSIONS: Prestatistical harmonization of cognitive data, performed by a multidisciplinary and multilingual team including cultural neuropsychologists, can identify differences in cognitive construct measurement across languages and cultures that may not be identified by statistical procedures alone. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Health Shocks and Economic Well-being of the Aging Population: Evidence from Mexico.

We exploit the longitudinal Mexican Health and Aging Study to estimate the effects of health shocks in the short-run on the subsequent economic well-being of the aging population in Mexico. While there is substantial evidence indicating negative economic effects of such changes in industrialized countries, little is known about health impacts on the future economic position of older adults in low- and middle-income countries. This paper takes an important step towards filling this gap in knowledge. Our results are widely relevant, with a large percentage of the world's population residing in developing countries such as Mexico that are experiencing rapid aging. We find evidence of negative impacts of health shocks on subsequent economic well-being of older adults in Mexico, but the effect varies according to several dimensions. First, the impact is clearly on income, not wealth. Second, responses are heterogenous across sources of income, with evidence of an impact mainly on labor income. Third, we find clear differences by gender in the impact of a health shock, with a larger negative impact on men. Fourth, we conclude that the population groups most negatively affected are those with the greatest degree of vulnerability prior to the shock, as measured by education and access to health insurance. Even though Mexico has made important gains with anti-poverty programs such as the Programa 70+ pension and a move towards universal health insurance, additional interventions targeted at the most vulnerable subsets of the aging population might be warranted.