Immunotherapies for locally aggressive cancers.

Improving surgical resection outcomes for locally aggressive tumors is key to inducing durable locoregional disease control and preventing progression to metastatic disease. Macroscopically complete resection of the tumor is the standard of care for many cancers, including breast, ovarian, lung, sarcoma, and mesothelioma. Advancements in cancer diagnostics are increasing the number of surgically eligible cases through early detection. Thus, a unique opportunity arises to improve patient outcomes with decreased recurrence rates via intraoperative delivery treatments using local drug delivery strategies after the tumor has been resected. Of the current systemic treatments (e.g., chemotherapy, targeted therapies, and immunotherapies), immunotherapies are the latest approach to offer significant benefits. Intraoperative strategies benefit from direct access to the tumor microenvironment which improves drug uptake to the tumor and simultaneously minimizes the risk of drug entering healthy tissues thereby resulting in fewer or less toxic adverse events. We review the current state of immunotherapy development and discuss the opportunities that intraoperative treatment provides. We conclude by summarizing progress in current research, identifying areas for exploration, and discussing future prospects in sustained remission.

Orthogonal inducible control of Cas13 circuits enables programmable RNA regulation in mammalian cells.

RNA plays an indispensable role in mammalian cell functions. Cas13, a class of RNA-guided ribonuclease, is a flexible tool for modifying and regulating coding and non-coding RNAs, with enormous potential for creating new cell functions. However, the lack of control over Cas13 activity has limited its cell engineering capability. Here, we present the CRISTAL (Control of RNA with Inducible SpliT CAs13 Orthologs and Exogenous Ligands) platform. CRISTAL is powered by a collection (10 total) of orthogonal split inducible Cas13 effectors that can be turned ON or OFF via small molecules in multiple cell types, providing precise temporal control. Also, we engineer Cas13 logic circuits that can respond to endogenous signaling and exogenous small molecule inputs. Furthermore, the orthogonality, low leakiness, and high dynamic range of our inducible Cas13d and Cas13b enable the design and construction of a robust incoherent feedforward loop, leading to near-perfect and tunable adaptation response. Finally, using our inducible Cas13 effectors, we achieve simultaneous multiplexed control of multiple genes in vitro and in mice. Together, our CRISTAL design represents a powerful platform for precisely regulating RNA dynamics to advance cell engineering and elucidate RNA biology.

Engineered bacteria guide T cells to tumors.

T cells and bacteria are engineered to work together to find and destroy tumor cells.

Complete substitution with modified nucleotides suppresses the early interferon response and increases the potency of self-amplifying RNA.

Self-amplifying RNA (saRNA) will revolutionize vaccines and in situ therapeutics by enabling protein expression for longer duration at lower doses. However, a major barrier to saRNA efficacy is the potent early interferon response triggered upon cellular entry, resulting in saRNA degradation and translational inhibition. Substitution of mRNA with modified nucleotides (modNTPs), such as N1-methylpseudouridine (N1mΨ), reduce the interferon response and enhance expression levels. Multiple attempts to use modNTPs in saRNA have been unsuccessful, leading to the conclusion that modNTPs are incompatible with saRNA, thus hindering further development. Here, contrary to the common dogma in the field, we identify multiple modNTPs that when incorporated into saRNA at 100% substitution confer immune evasion and enhance expression potency. Transfection efficiency enhances by roughly an order of magnitude in difficult to transfect cell types compared to unmodified saRNA, and interferon production reduces by >8 fold compared to unmodified saRNA in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Furthermore, we demonstrate expression of viral antigens in vitro and observe significant protection against lethal challenge with a mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 strain in vivo . A modified saRNA vaccine, at 100-fold lower dose than a modified mRNA vaccine, results in a statistically improved performance to unmodified saRNA and statistically equivalent performance to modified mRNA. This discovery considerably broadens the potential scope of self-amplifying RNA, enabling entry into previously impossible cell types, as well as the potential to apply saRNA technology to non-vaccine modalities such as cell therapy and protein replacement.

Longitudinal Single-Cell Imaging of Engineered Strains with Stimulated Raman Scattering to Characterize Heterogeneity in Fatty Acid Production.

Understanding metabolic heterogeneity is critical for optimizing microbial production of valuable chemicals, but requires tools that can quantify metabolites at the single-cell level over time. Here, longitudinal hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) chemical imaging is developed to directly visualize free fatty acids in engineered Escherichia coli over many cell cycles. Compositional analysis is also developed to estimate the chain length and unsaturation of the fatty acids in living cells. This method reveals substantial heterogeneity in fatty acid production among and within colonies that emerges over the course of many generations. Interestingly, the strains display distinct types of production heterogeneity in an enzyme-dependent manner. By pairing time-lapse and SRS imaging, the relationship between growth and production at the single-cell level are examined. The results demonstrate that cell-to-cell production heterogeneity is pervasive and provides a means to link single-cell and population-level production.

Boolean logic in synthetic biology and biomaterials: Towards living materials in mammalian cell therapeutics.

BACKGROUND: The intersection of synthetic biology and biomaterials promises to enhance safety and efficacy in novel therapeutics. Both fields increasingly employ Boolean logic, which allows for specific therapeutic outputs (e.g., drug release, peptide synthesis) in response to inputs such as disease markers or bio-orthogonal stimuli. Examples include stimuli-responsive drug delivery devices and logic-gated chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. In this review, we explore recent manuscripts highlighting the potential of synthetic biology and biomaterials with Boolean logic to create novel and efficacious living therapeutics. MAIN BODY: Collaborations in synthetic biology and biomaterials have led to significant advancements in drug delivery and cell therapy. Borrowing from synthetic biology, researchers have created Boolean-responsive biomaterials sensitive to multiple inputs including pH, light, enzymes and more to produce functional outputs such as degradation, gel-sol transition and conformational change. Biomaterials also enhance synthetic biology, particularly CAR T and adoptive T cell therapy, by modulating therapeutic immune cells in vivo. Nanoparticles and hydrogels also enable in situ generation of CAR T cells, which promises to drive down production costs and expand access to these therapies to a larger population. Biomaterials are also used to interface with logic-gated CAR T cell therapies, creating controllable cellular therapies that enhance safety and efficacy. Finally, designer cells acting as living therapeutic factories benefit from biomaterials that improve biocompatibility and stability in vivo. CONCLUSION: By using Boolean logic in both cellular therapy and drug delivery devices, researchers have achieved better safety and efficacy outcomes. While early projects show incredible promise, coordination between these fields is ongoing and growing. We expect that these collaborations will continue to grow and realize the next generation of living biomaterial therapeutics.

Orthogonal inducible control of Cas13 circuits enables programmable RNA regulation in mammalian cells.

RNA plays an indispensable role in mammalian cell functions. Cas13, a class of RNA-guided ribonuclease, is a flexible tool for modifying and regulating coding and non-coding RNAs, with enormous potential for creating new cell functions. However, the lack of control over Cas13 activity has limited its cell engineering capability. Here, we present the CRISTAL ( C ontrol of R NA with Inducible S pli T C A s13 Orthologs and Exogenous L igands) platform. CRISTAL is powered by a collection (10 total) of orthogonal split inducible Cas13s that can be turned ON or OFF via small molecules in multiple cell types, providing precise temporal control. Also, we engineered Cas13 logic circuits that can respond to endogenous signaling and exogenous small molecule inputs. Furthermore, the orthogonality, low leakiness, and high dynamic range of our inducible Cas13d and Cas13b enable the design and construction of a robust incoherent feedforward loop, leading to near-perfect and tunable adaptation response. Finally, using our inducible Cas13s, we achieve simultaneous multiplexed control of multiple genes in vitro and in mice. Together, our CRISTAL design represents a powerful platform for precisely regulating RNA dynamics to advance cell engineering and elucidate RNA biology.

The sound of silence: Transgene silencing in mammalian cell engineering.

To elucidate principles operating in native biological systems and to develop novel biotechnologies, synthetic biology aims to build and integrate synthetic gene circuits within native transcriptional networks. The utility of synthetic gene circuits for cell engineering relies on the ability to control the expression of all constituent transgene components. Transgene silencing, defined as the loss of expression over time, persists as an obstacle for engineering primary cells and stem cells with transgenic cargos. In this review, we highlight the challenge that transgene silencing poses to the robust engineering of mammalian cells, outline potential molecular mechanisms of silencing, and present approaches for preventing transgene silencing. We conclude with a perspective identifying future research directions for improving the performance of synthetic gene circuits.

Multidimensional control of therapeutic human cell function with synthetic gene circuits.

Synthetic gene circuits that precisely control human cell function could expand the capabilities of gene- and cell-based therapies. However, platforms for developing circuits in primary human cells that drive robust functional changes in vivo and have compositions suitable for clinical use are lacking. Here, we developed synthetic zinc finger transcription regulators (synZiFTRs), which are compact and based largely on human-derived proteins. As a proof of principle, we engineered gene switches and circuits that allow precise, user-defined control over therapeutically relevant genes in primary T cells using orthogonal, US Food and Drug Administration-approved small-molecule inducers. Our circuits can instruct T cells to sequentially activate multiple cellular programs such as proliferation and antitumor activity to drive synergistic therapeutic responses. This platform should accelerate the development and clinical translation of synthetic gene circuits in diverse human cell types and contexts.

The future of engineered immune cell therapies.

Immune cells are being engineered to recognize and respond to disease states, acting as a "living drug" when transferred into patients. Therapies based on engineered immune cells are now a clinical reality, with multiple engineered T cell therapies approved for treatment of hematologic malignancies. Ongoing preclinical and clinical studies are testing diverse strategies to modify the fate and function of immune cells for applications in cancer, infectious disease, and beyond. Here, we discuss current progress in treating human disease with immune cell therapeutics, emerging strategies for immune cell engineering, and challenges facing the field, with a particular emphasis on the treatment of cancer, where the most effort has been applied to date.

Recent progress of gene circuit designs in immune cell therapies.

The success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy against hematological cancers has convincingly demonstrated the potential of using genetically engineered cells as therapeutic agents. Although much progress has been achieved in cell therapy, more beneficial capabilities have yet to be fully explored. One of the unique advantages afforded by cell therapies is the possibility to implement genetic control circuits, which enables diverse signal sensing and logical processing for optimal response in the complex tumor microenvironment. In this perspective, we will first outline design considerations for cell therapy control circuits that address clinical demands. We will compare and contrast key design features in some of the latest control circuits developments and conclude by discussing potential future directions.

Small molecule-inducible gene regulatory systems in mammalian cells: progress and design principles.

Small molecule-inducible gene circuits are some of the most important tools in biology because they provide a convenient way to exert precise regulation of biological systems. These systems typically are designed to govern gene activation, repression, or disruption at multiple levels, such as through genome modification, transcription, translation, or post-translational regulation of protein activity. Due to their importance, many new systems have been created in the past few years to address different needs or afford orthogonality. They can be broadly characterized based on the inducer used, the mode of regulation, and the effector protein enabling the regulation. Furthermore, each synthetic circuit has varying performance metrics and design considerations. Here, we provide a concise comparison of recently developed tools and recommend standardized metrics for evaluating their performance and potential as biological interrogators or therapeutics.

Ganglioside-Functionalized Nanoparticles for Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-Cell Activation at the Immunological Synapse.

Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T cell therapy has proven to be an effective strategy against hematological malignancies but persistence and activity against solid tumors must be further improved. One emerging strategy for enhancing efficacy is based on directing CAR T cells to antigen presenting cells (APCs). Activation of CAR T cells at the immunological synapse (IS) formed between APC and T cell is thought to promote strong, persistent antigen-specific T cell-mediated immune responses but requires integration of CAR ligands into the APC/T-cell interface. Here, we demonstrate that CAR ligand functionalized, lipid-coated, biodegradable polymer nanoparticles (NPs) that contain the ganglioside GM3 (GM3-NPs) bind to CD169 (Siglec-1)-expressing APCs and localize to the cell contact site between APCs and CAR T cells upon initiation of cell conjugates. The CD169+ APC/CAR T-cell interface is characterized by a strong optical colocalization of GM3-NPs and CARs, enrichment of F-actin, and recruitment of ZAP-70, indicative of integration of GM3-NPs into a functional IS. Ligands associated with GM3-NPs localized to the APC/T-cell contact site remain accessible to CARs and result in robust T-cell activation. Overall, this work identifies GM3-NPs as a potential antigen delivery platform for active targeting of CD169 expressing APCs and enhancement of CAR T-cell activation at the NP-containing IS.

High-performance multiplex drug-gated CAR circuits.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells can revolutionize cancer medicine. However, overactivation, lack of tumor-specific surface markers, and antigen escape have hampered CAR T cell development. A multi-antigen targeting CAR system regulated by clinically approved pharmaceutical agents is needed. Here, we present VIPER CARs (versatile protease regulatable CARs), a collection of inducible ON and OFF switch CAR circuits engineered with a viral protease domain. We established their controllability using FDA-approved antiviral protease inhibitors in a xenograft tumor and a cytokine release syndrome mouse model. Furthermore, we benchmarked VIPER CARs against other drug-gated systems and demonstrated best-in-class performance. We showed their orthogonality in vivo using the ON VIPER CAR and OFF lenalidomide-CAR systems. Finally, we engineered several VIPER CAR circuits by combining various CAR technologies. Our multiplexed, drug-gated CAR circuits represent the next progression in CAR design capable of advanced logic and regulation for enhancing the safety of CAR T cell therapy.

Engineering digitizer circuits for chemical and genetic screens in human cells.

Cell-based transcriptional reporters are invaluable in high-throughput compound and CRISPR screens for identifying compounds or genes that can impact a pathway of interest. However, many transcriptional reporters have weak activities and transient responses. This can result in overlooking therapeutic targets and compounds that are difficult to detect, necessitating the resource-consuming process of running multiple screens at various timepoints. Here, we present RADAR, a digitizer circuit for amplifying reporter activity and retaining memory of pathway activation. Reporting on the AP-1 pathway, our circuit identifies compounds with known activity against PKC-related pathways and shows an enhanced dynamic range with improved sensitivity compared to a classical reporter in compound screens. In the first genome-wide pooled CRISPR screen for the AP-1 pathway, RADAR identifies canonical genes from the MAPK and PKC pathways, as well as non-canonical regulators. Thus, our scalable system highlights the benefit and versatility of using genetic circuits in large-scale cell-based screening.

Quantitative characterization of recombinase-based digitizer circuits enables predictable amplification of biological signals.

Many synthetic gene circuits are restricted to single-use applications or require iterative refinement for incorporation into complex systems. One example is the recombinase-based digitizer circuit, which has been used to improve weak or leaky biological signals. Here we present a workflow to quantitatively define digitizer performance and predict responses to different input signals. Using a combination of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), area under a receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), and fold change (FC), we evaluate three small-molecule inducible digitizer designs demonstrating FC up to 508x and SNR up to 3.77 dB. To study their behavior further and improve modularity, we develop a mixed phenotypic/mechanistic model capable of predicting digitizer configurations that amplify a synNotch cell-to-cell communication signal (Δ SNR up to 2.8 dB). We hope the metrics and modeling approaches here will facilitate incorporation of these digitizers into other systems while providing an improved workflow for gene circuit characterization.

Engineering advanced logic and distributed computing in human CAR immune cells.

The immune system is a sophisticated network of different cell types performing complex biocomputation at single-cell and consortium levels. The ability to reprogram such an interconnected multicellular system holds enormous promise in treating various diseases, as exemplified by the use of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells as cancer therapy. However, most CAR designs lack computation features and cannot reprogram multiple immune cell types in a coordinated manner. Here, leveraging our split, universal, and programmable (SUPRA) CAR system, we develop an inhibitory feature, achieving a three-input logic, and demonstrate that this programmable system is functional in diverse adaptive and innate immune cells. We also create an inducible multi-cellular NIMPLY circuit, kill switch, and a synthetic intercellular communication channel. Our work highlights that a simple split CAR design can generate diverse and complex phenotypes and provide a foundation for engineering an immune cell consortium with user-defined functionalities.

Synthetic biology in the clinic: engineering vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics.

Synthetic biology is a design-driven discipline centered on engineering novel biological functions through the discovery, characterization, and repurposing of molecular parts. Several synthetic biological solutions to critical biomedical problems are on the verge of widespread adoption and demonstrate the burgeoning maturation of the field. Here, we highlight applications of synthetic biology in vaccine development, molecular diagnostics, and cell-based therapeutics, emphasizing technologies approved for clinical use or in active clinical trials. We conclude by drawing attention to recent innovations in synthetic biology that are likely to have a significant impact on future applications in biomedicine.

A mechanistic model of the BLADE platform predicts performance characteristics of 256 different synthetic DNA recombination circuits.

Boolean logic and arithmetic through DNA excision (BLADE) is a recently developed platform for implementing inducible and logical control over gene expression in mammalian cells, which has the potential to revolutionise cell engineering for therapeutic applications. This 2-input 2-output platform can implement 256 different logical circuits that exploit the specificity and stability of DNA recombination. Here, we develop the first mechanistic mathematical model of the 2-input BLADE platform based on Cre- and Flp-mediated DNA excision. After calibrating the model on experimental data from two circuits, we demonstrate close agreement between model outputs and data on the other 111 circuits that have so far been experimentally constructed using the 2-input BLADE platform. Model simulations of the remaining 143 circuits that have yet to be tested experimentally predict excellent performance of the 2-input BLADE platform across the range of possible circuits. Circuits from both the tested and untested subsets that perform less well consist of a disproportionally high number of STOP sequences. Model predictions suggested that circuit performance declines with a decrease in recombinase expression and new experimental data was generated that confirms this relationship.