Regulation of the Extracellular SERPINA5 (Protein C Inhibitor) Penetration Through Cellular Membranes.

It is generally accepted that the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane is impermeable for proteins and peptides and that these molecules require special mechanisms for their transport from the extra- to the intracellular space. Recently there is increasing evidence that certain proteins/peptides can also directly cross the phospholipid membrane. SERPINA5 (protein C inhibitor) is a secreted protease inhibitor with broad protease reactivity and wide tissue distribution. It binds glycosaminoglycans and certain phospoholipids, which can modulate its inhibitory activity. SERPINA5 has been shown to be internalized by platelets, granulocytes, HL-60 promyelocytic leukemia cells, and by Jurkat lymphoma cells. Once inside the cell it can translocate to the nucleus. There are several indications that SERPINA5 can directly cross the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane. In this review we will describe what is known so far about the conditions, as well as the cellular and molecular requirements for SERPINA5 translocation through the cell membrane and for its penetration of pure phospholipid vesicles.

Cell penetrating SERPINA5 (ProteinC inhibitor, PCI): More questions than answers.

SERPINA5 (proteinC inhibitor, plasminogen activator inhibitor-3) is a secreted, extracellular clade A serpin. Its main characteristics are broad protease reactivity and wide tissue distribution (in man). SERPINA5 has originally been described as an inhibitor of activated protein C and independently as an inhibitor of the plasminogen activator urokinase. SERPINA5 binds glycosaminoglycans, phospholipids, and retinoic acid. Glycosaminoglycans and certain phospholipids can modulate its inhibitory activity and specificity. Studies suggest that SERPINA5 may play a role in hemostasis, in male reproduction, in host defense, and as a tumor suppressor. However, its biological role has not yet been defined. So far SERPINA5 deficiency has not been described in man. Mouse models are of limited value, since in mice serpinA5 is almost exclusively expressed in the reproductive tract. Consistently the only obvious phenotype of serpinA5-knockout mice is infertility of homozygous males. SERPINA5 can be internalized by cells and translocated to the nucleus. The internalization is dependent on the phospholipid phosphatidylethanolamine and on the intact N-terminus of SERPINA5, which functions as a cell penetrating peptide. Further functional analysis of intracellular SERPINA5 will contribute to our understanding of the biological role of this molecule.

Proteome analysis of testis from infertile protein C inhibitor-deficient mice reveals novel changes in serpin processing and prostaglandin metabolism.

Serine protease inhibitors (serpin) have therapeutic potential in a variety of pathogenic processes, ranging from thrombosis and altered immune response to liver cirrhosis. To investigate the physiological effects of protein C inhibitor (PCI, serpinA5), its gene was inactivated in a mouse model, resulting in male infertility. In the present report, 2D differential gel electrophoresis was utilized to investigate the molecular mechanisms for PCI involvement in male reproduction. Comparing the testes proteomes of three PCI-knockout mice with three wild types demonstrated similar patterns with the exception of a massive upregulation of prostaglandin reductase 1 (tenfold; p < 0.002) and the complete shifts in the molecular weights of serpinA1C and serpinA3K. All these PCI-dependent proteome changes were immunologically verified. Unbiased proteome analysis indicated that inactivation of serpinA5 strongly influenced both the protein species pattern of other A-clade serpins as well as prostaglandin metabolism in the testes.

A+-helix of protein C inhibitor (PCI) is a cell-penetrating peptide that mediates cell membrane permeation of PCI.

Protein C inhibitor (PCI) is a serpin with broad protease reactivity. It binds glycosaminoglycans and certain phospholipids that can modulate its inhibitory activity. PCI can penetrate through cellular membranes via binding to phosphatidylethanolamine. The exact mechanism of PCI internalization and the intracellular role of the serpin are not well understood. Here we showed that testisin, a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored serine protease, cleaved human PCI and mouse PCI (mPCI) at their reactive sites as well as at sites close to their N terminus. This cleavage was observed not only with testisin in solution but also with cell membrane-anchored testisin on U937 cells. The cleavage close to the N terminus released peptides rich in basic amino acids. Synthetic peptides corresponding to the released peptides of human PCI (His(1)-Arg(11)) and mPCI (Arg(1)-Ala(18)) functioned as cell-penetrating peptides. Because intact mPCI but not testisin-cleaved mPCI was internalized by Jurkat T cells, a truncated mPCI mimicking testisin-cleaved mPCI was created. The truncated mPCI lacking 18 amino acids at the N terminus was not taken up by Jurkat T cells. Therefore our model suggests that testisin or other proteases could regulate the internalization of PCI by removing its N terminus. This may represent one of the mechanisms regulating the intracellular functions of PCI.

Gene delivery to dendritic cells by orally administered recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae in mice.

DNA vaccination has caught the attention of many for triggering humoral as well as cellular immune responses. And delivering DNA into the antigen presenting cells (APCs) in order to induce efficient immunoresponse has become the backbone of this field. It has been confirmed that Saccharomyces cerevisiae, though non-pathogenic, is being engulfed by the dendritic cells and macrophages and delivers not only proteins, but also DNA materials (already confirmed in vitro). In this research, S. cerevisiae is used to deliver green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter gene controlled under cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter in living organism (mice). The recombinant yeast, transfected with the plasmid containing the GFP gene, was heat killed and orally administered to mice. After 60 h of yeast administration, mice were sacrificed and intestine was separated, washed and frozen in liquid nitrogen. Tissues were cut at the size of 10 µm using Cryostat machine, and GFP expression was successfully detected under a fluorescence microscope. After 45 days Western blot was able to detect GFP antibody in the blood of mice. These results imply that S. cerevisiae, being non-pathogenic, cheap, and easy to culture could be a good candidate to deliver DNA materials to the immune cells for vaccination.

A vaccine grade of yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae expressing mammalian myostatin.

BACKGROUND: Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a widely-used system for protein expression. We previously showed that heat-killed whole recombinant yeast vaccine expressing mammalian myostatin can modulate myostatin function in mice, resulting in increase of body weight and muscle composition in these animals. Foreign DNA introduced into yeast cells can be lost soon unless cells are continuously cultured in selection media, which usually contain antibiotics. For cost and safety concerns, it is essential to optimize conditions to produce quality food and pharmaceutical products. RESULTS: We developed a simple but effective method to engineer a yeast strain stably expressing mammalian myostatin. This method utilized high-copy-number integration of myostatin gene into the ribosomal DNA of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In the final step, antibiotic selection marker was removed using the Cre-LoxP system to minimize any possible side-effects for animals. The resulting yeast strain can be maintained in rich culture media and stably express mammalian myostatin for two years. Oral administration of the recombinant yeast was able to induce immune response to myostatin and modulated the body weight of mice. CONCLUSIONS: Establishment of such yeast strain is a step further toward transformation of yeast cells into edible vaccine to improve meat production in farm animals and treat human muscle-wasting diseases in the future.

An improved method for whole protein extraction from yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

A new method for protein extraction from yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells is described. This method involves the use of LiAc and NaOH to enhance the permeability of yeast cell wall prior to protein extraction with SDS-PAGE sample buffer. It was safe and efficient compared to other methods reported so far in the literature. The proteins extracted with this new method retained their immunoreactive properties and are suitable for most applications in molecular biology studies.

Oral administration of myostatin-specific whole recombinant yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae vaccine increases body weight and muscle composition in mice.

Myostatin negatively regulates skeletal muscle growth. It was found that active immunization with myostatin-specific vaccine blocked myostatin function in vivo, which resulted in increase of body weight and muscle composition in mice. However, traditional vaccine and its administration method are expensive and laborious. In this study, we investigated the possibility of using heat-killed whole recombinant yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae vaccine to modulate myostatin function in mice. The CDS of myostatin was obtained from a pig genome by PCR and subcloned into a yeast expression vector, which was driven by a copper-inducible promoter. Expression of recombinant myostatin was induced by CuSO(4) and confirmed by western blot. We vaccinated mice by oral feeding and subcutaneous injection as comparison. We found that oral feeding resulted in the similar effective immune response than injection, which was measured by the presence of myostatin-specific antibodies in mouse serum. Interestingly, animals vaccinated by both methods demonstrated enhanced growth performance compared to control. All animals were healthy looking throughout the course of experiment, suggesting that whole recombinant yeast vaccine is nontoxic and therefore safe to use. Given the simplicity of its nature, heat-killed myostatin-specific whole recombinant yeast vaccine holds a promise to treat human muscle-wasting diseases in the future.