[Progress in research of association between phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors and cancer incidence].

With the increased use of phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors (PDE5Is) over the past years, several population based studies have suggested a potential association between PDE5Is and the risk for specific cancers. This paper systematically summarizes the current status of relatedstudies. Meta-analyses on current research indicated that the use of PDE5Is might be associated with the increased risk for melanoma (RR=1.11, 95%CI: 1.02-1.22) and basal cell carcinoma (RR=1.16, 95%CI: 1.13-1.20), but not for prostate cancer (OR=0.71, 95%CI: 0.40-1.29), and might have chemoprophylaxis effect on colorectal cancer (RR=0.85, 95%CI: 0.76-0.95). However, results of squamous cell carcinoma were still inconsistent. Further exploration based on the experience and limitations of current research is suggested.

Fourth-order partial differential equations for noise removal.

A class of fourth-order partial differential equations (PDEs) are proposed to optimize the trade-off between noise removal and edge preservation. The time evolution of these PDEs seeks to minimize a cost functional which is an increasing function of the absolute value of the Laplacian of the image intensity function. Since the Laplacian of an image at a pixel is zero if the image is planar in its neighborhood, these PDEs attempt to remove noise and preserve edges by approximating an observed image with a piecewise planar image. Piecewise planar images look more natural than step images which anisotropic diffusion (second order PDEs) uses to approximate an observed image. So the proposed PDEs are able to avoid the blocky effects widely seen in images processed by anisotropic diffusion, while achieving the degree of noise removal and edge preservation comparable to anisotropic diffusion. Although both approaches seem to be comparable in removing speckles in the observed images, speckles are more visible in images processed by the proposed PDEs, because piecewise planar images are less likely to mask speckles than step images and anisotropic diffusion tends to generate multiple false edges. Speckles can be easily removed by simple algorithms such as the one presented in this paper.

Blind image restoration by anisotropic regularization.

This paper presents anisotropic regularization techniques to exploit the piecewise smoothness of the image and the point spread function (PSF) in order to mitigate the severe lack of information encountered in blind restoration of shift-invariantly and shift-variantly blurred images. The new techniques, which are derived from anisotropic diffusion, adapt both the degree and direction of regularization to the spatial activities and orientations of the image and the PSF. This matches the piecewise smoothness of the image and the PSF which may be characterized by sharp transitions in magnitude and by the anisotropic nature of these transitions. For shift-variantly blurred images whose underlying PSFs may differ from one pixel to another, we parameterize the PSF and then apply the anisotropic regularization techniques. This is demonstrated for linear motion blur and out-of-focus blur. Alternating minimization is used to reduce the computational load and algorithmic complexity.

A regularization approach to joint blur identification and image restoration.

The primary difficulty with blind image restoration, or joint blur identification and image restoration, is insufficient information. This calls for proper incorporation of a priori knowledge about the image and the point-spread function (PSF). A well-known space-adaptive regularization method for image restoration is extended to address this problem. This new method effectively utilizes, among others, the piecewise smoothness of both the image and the PSF. It attempts to minimize a cost function consisting of a restoration error measure and two regularization terms (one for the image and the other for the blur) subject to other hard constraints. A scale problem inherent to the cost function is identified, which, if not properly treated, may hinder the minimization/blind restoration process. Alternating minimization is proposed to solve this problem so that algorithmic efficiency as well as simplicity is significantly increased. Two implementations of alternating minimization based on steepest descent and conjugate gradient methods are presented. Good performance is observed with numerically and photographically blurred images, even though no stringent assumptions about the structure of the underlying blur operator is made.

Behavioral analysis of anisotropic diffusion in image processing.

In this paper, we analyze the behavior of the anisotropic diffusion model of Perona and Malik (1990). The main idea is to express the anisotropic diffusion equation as coming from a certain optimization problem, so its behavior can be analyzed based on the shape of the corresponding energy surface. We show that anisotropic diffusion is the steepest descent method for solving an energy minimization problem. It is demonstrated that an anisotropic diffusion is well posed when there exists a unique global minimum for the energy functional and that the ill posedness of a certain anisotropic diffusion is caused by the fact that its energy functional has an infinite number of global minima that are dense in the image space. We give a sufficient condition for an anisotropic diffusion to be well posed and a sufficient and necessary condition for it to be ill posed due to the dense global minima. The mechanism of smoothing and edge enhancement of anisotropic diffusion is illustrated through a particular orthogonal decomposition of the diffusion operator into two parts: one that diffuses tangentially to the edges and therefore acts as an anisotropic smoothing operator, and the other that flows normally to the edges and thus acts as an enhancement operator.