Prevalence of anxiety and depression in people with different types of cancer or haematologic malignancies: a cross-sectional study.

AIMS: Cancer patients often present with psychological symptoms that affect their quality of life, physical health outcomes and survival. Two of the most frequent psychiatric comorbidities are anxiety and depression. However, the prevalence of these disorders among cancer patients remains unclear, as studies frequently report varying rates. In the present study, we aimed to provide robust point estimates for the prevalence of anxiety and depression for both a mixed cancer sample and for 13 cancer types separately, considering confounding variables. METHODS: In a sample of 7509 cancer outpatients (51.4% female), we used the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale to assess rates of anxiety and depression. Applying ordinal logistic regression models, we compared the prevalence of anxiety and depression between different cancer types, controlling for age and gender. RESULTS: About one third of our sample showed symptoms of anxiety (35.2%) or depression (27.9%), and every sixth patient had a very likely psychiatric condition, with women being more frequently affected. Elderly patients more often showed signs of depression. The prevalence of anxiety and depression was significantly higher in lung and brain cancer patients, than in other cancer patients. Lowest depression rates were found in breast cancer patients. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of anxiety and depression is high in cancer patients. Type of cancer is an important predictor for anxiety and depressive symptoms, with lung and brain cancer patients being highly burdened. Considering a personalised medicine approach, physicians should take into account the high prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities and include psychiatric consultations in the treatment plan.

Next-generation sequencing identifies major DNA methylation changes during progression of Ph+ chronic myeloid leukemia.

Little is known about the impact of DNA methylation on the evolution/progression of Ph+ chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). We investigated the methylome of CML patients in chronic phase (CP-CML), accelerated phase (AP-CML) and blast crisis (BC-CML) as well as in controls by reduced representation bisulfite sequencing. Although only ~600 differentially methylated CpG sites were identified in samples obtained from CP-CML patients compared with controls, ~6500 differentially methylated CpG sites were found in samples from BC-CML patients. In the majority of affected CpG sites, methylation was increased. In CP-CML patients who progressed to AP-CML/BC-CML, we identified up to 897 genes that were methylated at the time of progression but not at the time of diagnosis. Using RNA-sequencing, we observed downregulated expression of many of these genes in BC-CML compared with CP-CML samples. Several of them are well-known tumor-suppressor genes or regulators of cell proliferation, and gene re-expression was observed by the use of epigenetic active drugs. Together, our results demonstrate that CpG site methylation clearly increases during CML progression and that it may provide a useful basis for revealing new targets of therapy in advanced CML.

Third CECOG consensus on the systemic treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer.

The current third consensus on the systemic treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) builds upon and updates similar publications on the subject by the Central European Cooperative Oncology Group (CECOG), which has published such consensus statements in the years 2002 and 2005 (Zielinski CC, Beinert T, Crawford J et al. Consensus on medical treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer--update 2004. Lung Cancer 2005; 50: 129-137). The principle of all CECOG consensus is such that evidence-based recommendations for state-of-the-art treatment are given upon which all participants and authors of the manuscript have to agree (Beslija S, Bonneterre J, Burstein HJ et al. Third consensus on medical treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Ann Oncol 2009; 20 (11): 1771-1785). This is of particular importance in diseases in which treatment options depend on very particular clinical and biologic variables (Zielinski CC, Beinert T, Crawford J et al. Consensus on medical treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer--update 2004. Lung Cancer 2005; 50: 129-137; Beslija S, Bonneterre J, Burstein HJ et al. Third consensus on medical treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Ann Oncol 2009; 20 (11): 1771-1785). Since the publication of the last CECOG consensus on the medical treatment of NSCLC, a series of diagnostic tools for the characterization of biomarkers for personalized therapy for NSCLC as well as therapeutic options including adjuvant treatment, targeted therapy, and maintenance treatment have emerged and strongly influenced the field. Thus, the present third consensus was generated that not only readdresses previous disease-related issues but also expands toward recent developments in the management of NSCLC. It is the aim of the present consensus to summarize minimal quality-oriented requirements for individual patients with NSCLC in its various stages based upon levels of evidence in the light of a rapidly expanding array of individual therapeutic options.

Aberrant promoter methylation profile of bladder cancer and its relationship to clinicopathological features.

We investigated the aberrant promoter methylation profile of bladder cancers and correlated the data with clinicopathological findings. The methylation status of 10 genes was determined in 98 surgically resected bladder cancers, and we calculated the median methylation index (MI), a reflection of the methylated fraction of the genes tested. Methylation frequencies of the genes tested in bladder cancers were 36% for CDH1, 35% for RASSF1A and APC, 29% for CDH13, 16% for FHIT, 15% for RAR beta, 11% for GSTP1, 7% for p16(INK4A), 4% for DAPK, and 2% for MGMT. Methylation of four of the individual genes (CDH1, RASSF1A, APC, and CDH13) and the MI were significantly correlated with several parameters of poor prognosis (tumor grade, growth pattern, muscle invasion, tumor stage, and ploidy pattern). Methylation of CDH1, FHIT, and a high MI were associated with shortened survival. CDH1 methylation positive status was independently associated with poor survival in multivariate analyses. Our results suggest that the methylation profile may be a potential new biomarker of risk prediction in bladder cancer.

Epigenetic inactivation of RASSF1A in lung and breast cancers and malignant phenotype suppression.

BACKGROUND: The recently identified RASSF1 locus is located within a 120-kilobase region of chromosome 3p21.3 that frequently undergoes allele loss in lung and breast cancers. We explored the hypothesis that RASSF1 encodes a tumor suppressor gene for lung and breast cancers. METHODS: We assessed expression of two RASSF1 gene products, RASSF1A and RASSF1C, and the methylation status of their respective promoters in 27 non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines, in 107 resected NSCLCs, in 47 small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) cell lines, in 22 breast cancer cell lines, in 39 resected breast cancers, in 104 nonmalignant lung samples, and in three breast and lung epithelial cultures. We also transfected a lung cancer cell line that lacks RASSF1A expression with vectors containing RASSF1A complementary DNA to determine whether exogenous expression of RASSF1A would affect in vitro growth and in vivo tumorigenicity of this cell line. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: RASSF1A messenger RNA was expressed in nonmalignant epithelial cultures but not in 100% of the SCLC, in 65% of the NSCLC, or in 60% of the breast cancer lines. By contrast, RASSF1C was expressed in all nonmalignant cell cultures and in nearly all cancer cell lines. RASSF1A promoter hypermethylation was detected in 100% of SCLC, in 63% of NSCLC, in 64% of breast cancer lines, in 30% of primary NSCLCs, and in 49% of primary breast tumors but in none of the nonmalignant lung tissues. RASSF1A promoter hypermethylation in resected NSCLCs was associated with impaired patient survival (P =.046). Exogenous expression of RASSF1A in a cell line lacking expression decreased in vitro colony formation and in vivo tumorigenicity. CONCLUSION: RASSF1A is a potential tumor suppressor gene that undergoes epigenetic inactivation in lung and breast cancers through hypermethylation of its promoter region.

Molecular genetic abnormalities in the pathogenesis of human lung cancer.

In the past few years our knowledge of the molecular pathogenesis of lung cancer has significantly increased. There are several molecular mechanisms involved in the multistage carcinogenesis through which respiratory epithelial cells become preneoplastic and then invasive cancer. In this review we summarize some of these changes including, genomic alterations such as loss of heterozygosity and microsatellite alterations, autocrine-paracrine loops, alterations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, tumor angiogenesis, aberrant promoter methylation and inherited predisposition to lung cancer. Translation of these findings to the clinic is also discussed.

5' CpG island methylation of the FHIT gene is correlated with loss of gene expression in lung and breast cancer.

Allele loss and loss of expression of fragile histidine triad (FHIT), a putative tumor suppressor gene located in chromosome region 3p14.2, are frequent in several types of cancers. Tumor-acquired methylation of promoter region CpG islands is one method for silencing tumor suppressor genes. We investigated 5' CpG island methylation of the FHIT gene in 107 primary non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) samples and corresponding nonmalignant lung tissues, 39 primary breast carcinomas, as well as in 49 lung and 22 breast cancer cell lines by a methylation-specific PCR assay. In addition, we analyzed brushes from the bronchial epithelium of 35 heavy smokers without cancer. FHIT methylation was detected in 37% of primary NSCLCs, 31% of primary breast cancers, and 65% of lung and 86% of breast cancer cell lines. The frequency of methylation in small cell and NSCLC cell lines were identical. Methylation was found in 9% of the corresponding nonmalignant lung tissues and in 17% of bronchial brushes from heavy cigarette smokers. FHIT methylation was significantly correlated with loss of FHIT mRNA expression by Northern blot analysis in lung cancer cell lines and with loss of Fhit expression in NSCLC and breast tumors by immunostaining. We conclude that methylation of FHIT is a frequent event in NSCLC and breast cancers and is an important mechanism for loss of expression of this gene. Methylation of FHIT commences during lung cancer pathogenesis and may represent a marker for risk assessment.

P-glycoprotein and MRP1 expression in axillary lymph node metastases of breast cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: Only little information on the expression of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and MRP1 in metastases of breast carcinomas is currently available. The aim of the present study was to investigate the expression of these two proteins in axillary lymph node metastases of breast cancer patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We determined the expression of P-gp and MRP1 in axillary lymph node metastases of 63 breast cancer patients and, in 32 patients, compared this expression to the expression of corresponding primary tumors. P-gp was detected by means of C219 and Ab-2 monoclonal antibodies, and MRP1 by means of the MRPr1 monoclonal antibody. RESULTS: In lymph node metastases, P-gp expression was positive, usually at low levels, in 28 (44%) specimens whilst MRP1 expression was positive in all specimens with low, intermediate and high levels in 3 (5%), 46 (73%) and 14 (22%) specimens, respectively. The percentage of P-gp expression was slightly lower in lymph nodes than in primary tumors while MRP1 expression showed a higher staining intensity in lymph nodes than in their corresponding primary tumors. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that both P-gp and MRP1 are frequently expressed in lymph node metastases of breast cancer patients and that MRP1 expression is more pronounced in lymph node metastases than in corresponding primary tumors.

Aberrant promoter methylation of multiple genes in non-small cell lung cancers.

Aberrant methylation of CpG islands acquired in tumor cells in promoter regions is one method for loss of gene function. We determined the frequency of aberrant promoter methylation (referred to as methylation) of the genes retinoic acid receptor beta-2 (RARbeta), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 3 (TIMP-3), p16INK4a, O6-methylguanine-DNA-methyltransferase (MGMT), death-associated protein kinase (DAPK), E-cadherin (ECAD), p14ARF, and glutathione S-transferase P1 (GSTP1) in 107 resected primary non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs) and in 104 corresponding nonmalignant lung tissues by methylation-specific PCR. Methylation in the tumor samples was detected in 40% for RARbeta, 26% for TIMP-3, 25% for p16INK4a, 21% for MGMT, 19% for DAPK, 18% for ECAD, 8% for p14ARF, and 7% for GSTP1, whereas it was not seen in the vast majority of the corresponding nonmalignant tissues. Moreover, p16INK4a methylation was correlated with loss of p16INK4a expression by immunohistochemistry. A total of 82% of the NSCLCs had methylation of at least one of these genes; 37% of the NSCLCs had one gene methylated, 22% of the NSCLCs had two genes methylated, 13% of the NSCLCs had three genes methylated, 8% of the NSCLCs had four genes methylated, and 2% of the NSCLCs had five genes methylated. Methylation of these genes was correlated with some clinicopathological characteristics of the patients. In comparing the methylation patterns of tumors and nonmalignant lung tissues from the same patients, there were many discordancies where the genes methylated in nonmalignant tissues were not methylated in the corresponding tumors. This suggests that the methylation was occurring as a preneoplastic change. We conclude that these findings confirm in a large sample that methylation is a frequent event in NSCLC, can also occur in smoking-damaged nonmalignant lung tissues, and may be the most common mechanism to inactivate cancer-related genes in NSCLC.

The biology of lung cancer including potential clinical applications.

The understanding of lung cancer pathogenesis is rapidly growing and needs to be translated into clinical practice. Molecular screening approaches will be combined with CT scans to detect premalignant lesions and early-stage cancers in high-risk groups for lung cancer and to monitor the efficacy of chemoprevention trials. New treatment approaches, such as gene therapy, monoclonal antibodies against growth factors and receptors, angiogenesis inhibitors, vaccines, apoptosis modulators, and new drugs targeted at these abnormal pathways, will be tested and, if effective, included in future multimodality treatment strategies of lung cancer. All these approaches will hopefully lead to earlier diagnosis and more efficient treatment of lung cancer, resulting in a better prognosis of this still mostly lethal disease.

Genome-wide allelotyping of lung cancer identifies new regions of allelic loss, differences between small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer, and loci clustering.

To identify the major tumor suppressor gene (TSG) loci involved in the pathogenesis of lung cancer, we have conducted a high-resolution (10 cM), genome-wide search of loss of heterozygosity (LOH). Thirty-six lung cancer cell lines [14 small cell lung cancers (SCLCs) and 22 non-SCLCs (NSCLCs)] and their matched control DNAs were analyzed using 399 fluorescent microsatellite markers from the ABI Prism linkage mapping set v.2 on an ABI 377 sequencer/genotyper. Overall, 22 different regions with more than 60% LOH were identified: (a) 13 regions with a preference for SCLC; (b) 7 regions with a preference for NSCLC; and (c) 2 regions affecting both SCLC and NSCLC. The chromosomal arms with the most frequent LOH were 1p, 3p, 4p, 4q, 5q, 8p, 9p (p16), 9q, 10p, 10q, 13q (Rb), 15q, 17p (p53), 18q, 19p, Xp, Xq. In addition, new homozygous deletions were found at 2p23, 8q24, 18q11, and Xq22. On average, 34% (SCLC) to 36% (NSCLC) of markers showed allele loss in individual tumors, with an average size of subchromosomal region of loss of five to six markers (50-60 cM). Whereas SCLC and NSCLC had different regions of frequent LOH (hot spots), and NSCLC had more of these regions (n = 22) than SCLC (n = 17), in all other parameters (fractional allelic loss, number of breakpoints, and number of microsatellite alterations), SCLC and NSCLC were not significantly different. Clustering analysis revealed correlations between LOH on different chromosomes that suggest previously unknown genetic interactions for lung cancer development. We conclude that (a) in lung cancer cell lines, at least 17-22 chromosomal regions with frequent allele loss are involved, suggesting that the same number of putative TSGs are inactivated; (b) SCLC and NSCLC frequently undergo different specific genetic alterations; and (c) clusters of TSGs are likely to be inactivated together. Overall, these data provide global estimates of the extent of genetic changes leading to lung cancer and will be useful for the positional cloning of new TSGs and for the identification of multiple new biomarkers for translational research.

Promoter methylation and silencing of the retinoic acid receptor-beta gene in lung carcinomas.

BACKGROUND: Retinoic acid plays an important role in lung development and differentiation, acting primarily via nuclear receptors encoded by the retinoic acid receptor-beta (RARbeta) gene. Because receptor isoforms RARbeta2 and RARbeta4 are repressed in human lung cancers, we investigated whether methylation of their promoter, P2, might lead to silencing of the RARbeta gene in human lung tumors and cell lines. METHODS: Methylation of the P2 promoter from small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines and tumor samples was analyzed by the methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Expression of RARbeta2 and RARbeta4 was analyzed by reverse transcription-PCR. Loss of heterozygosity (LOH) was analyzed by PCR amplification followed by electrophoretic separation of PCR products. Statistical differences were analyzed by Fisher's exact test with continuity correction. RESULTS: The P2 promoter was methylated in 72% (63 of 87) of SCLC and in 41% (52 of 127) of NSCLC tumors and cell lines, and the difference was statistically significant (two-sided P:<.001). By contrast, in 57 of 58 control samples, we observed only the unmethylated form of the gene. Four tumor cell lines with unmethylated promoter regions expressed both RARbeta2 and RARbeta4. Four tumor lines with methylated promoter regions lacked expression of these isoforms, but demethylation by exposure to 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine restored their expression. LOH at chromosome 3p24 was observed in 100% (13 of 13) of SCLC lines and 67% (12 of 18) of NSCLC cell lines, and the difference was statistically significant (two-sided P: =.028). CONCLUSIONS: Methylation of the RARbeta P2 promoter is one mechanism that silences RARbeta2 and RARbeta4 expression in many lung cancers, particularly SCLC. Chemical demethylation is a potential approach to lung cancer therapy.

Fragile histidine triad (FHIT) gene abnormalities in lung cancer.

Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer death in the world. In recent years, enormous progress has been made in understanding the molecular and cellular biology of lung cancer. The fragile histidine triad (FHIT) gene, a candidate tumor-suppressor gene, was recently identified at chromosome 3p14.2, spanning the FRA3B common fragile site. Frequent allelic losses as well as homozygous deletions have been described at the FHIT locus, making FHIT a strong candidate as a tumor-suppressor gene. However, the occurrence of mutations is very rare. Aberrant FHIT transcripts, including deletions of exons, insertions between exons, and insertions replacing exons, are detected in a high percentage of lung tumors. Reduction or complete loss of FHIT expression by immunohistochemical testing is seen in about 30%-70% of non small-cell lung cancer and in about 20% of bronchial biopsies from chronic smokers without evidence of lung cancer. This finding supports the theory that FHIT is a molecular target of tobacco smoke carcinogens. However, the location of the gene in one of the most fragile sites of the human genome and the paucity of mutations have led to an alternative hypothesis that abnormalities of the gene are bystander effects resulting from disruption of the FRA3B locus. Thus, the function of FHIT as a candidate tumor-suppressor gene is still controversial, and additional studies are necessary to clarify the role of FHIT in lung cancer pathogenesis.

Treatment of small cell lung cancer patients.

Small cell lung cancers, comprising approximately 20% of lung cancers, are rapidly growing and disseminating carcinomas which are initially chemosensitive but acquire drug resistance during the course of disease. Thus, outcome is poor with median survival of 10-16 months for patients with limited and 7-11 months for patients with extensive disease. Polychemotherapy with established drugs (platins, etoposide, anthracyclines, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide and Vinca alkaloids) plays the major role in the treatment of this disease and results in overall response rates between 80%-95% for limited disease and 60%-80% for extensive disease. Dose-intensified chemotherapy and high-dose chemotherapy with peripheral blood progenitor cell support were tested in several trials but their exact impact on outcome remains to be determined. New drugs including the taxanes (paclitaxel, docetaxel), the topoisomerase I inhibitors (topotecan, irinotecan), vinorelbine and gemcitabine are currently evaluated in clinical trials. In limited disease, thoracic radiotherapy improves survival and prophylactic cranial irradiation should be administered to those with a reasonable chance of cure.

Vinorelbine/gemcitabine in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC): a phase I trial.

Vinorelbine and gemcitabine are both active as single agents in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Because of their different mechanisms of action, good tolerability and possible administration on an out-patient basis, vinorelbine/gemcitabine should be an interesting combination for palliative chemotherapy. Thus, we initiated a phase I dose-escalation trial in order to determine the maximum tolerated doses of vinorelbine/gemcitabine that can be administered without haematopoietic growth factors, the dose-limiting toxicities and the most frequent side-effects of this novel combination. 40 chemotherapy-naïve patients with advanced NSCLC were treated with different doses of vinorelbine/gemcitabine on days 1, 8 and 15, and this treatment cycle was repeated on day 29. Vinorelbine and gemcitabine were escalated from 10 to 30 mg/m2 and 600 to 1200 mg/m2, respectively. A total of 63 treatment cycles were administered and 27 patients received at least two treatment cycles. Dose-limiting toxicities were leucopenia plus thrombocytopenia (2 patients) and mucositis (1 patient). The maximum tolerated dose was established at 25 mg/m2 vinorelbine combined with 1200 mg/m2 gemcitabine. Frequent side-effects were leucopenia, anaemia, nausea/vomiting, flu-like symptoms, skin rashes and elevation of liver enzymes. The recommended phase II doses are 20-25 mg/m2 vinorelbine combined with 1000-1200 mg/m2 gemcitabine on days 1, 8 and 15, but myelosuppression will have to be carefully monitored.