Delivering reproductive health services through non-state providers in Pakistan: understanding the value for money of different approaches.

BACKGROUND: Delivering Reproductive Health Results(DRHR) programme used social franchising (SF) and social marketing (SM) approaches to increase the supply of high quality family planning services in underserved areas of Pakistan. We assessed the costs, cost-efficiency and cost-effectiveness of DRHR to understand the value for money of these approaches. METHODS: Financial and economic programme costs were calculated. Costs to individual users were captured in a pre-post survey. The cost per couple years of protection (CYP) and cost per new user were estimated as indicators of cost efficiency. For the cost-effectiveness analysis we estimated the cost per clinical outcome averted and the cost per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted. RESULTS: Approximately £20 million were spent through the DRHR programme between July 2012 and September 2015 on commodities and services representing nearly four million CYPs. Based on programme data, the cumulative cost-efficiency of the entire DRHR programme was £4.8 per CYP. DRHR activities would avert one DALY at the cost of £20. Financial access indicators generally improved in programme areas, but the magnitude of progress varies across indicators. CONCLUSIONS: The SF and SM approaches adopted in DRHR appear to be cost effective relative to comparable reproductive health programmes. This paper adds to the limited evidence on the cost-effectiveness of different models of reproductive health care provision in low- and middle-income settings. Further studies are needed to nuance the understanding of the determinants of impact and value for money of SF and SM.

Avian influenza surveillance in domestic waterfowl and environment of live bird markets in Bangladesh, 2007-2012.

Avian influenza viruses, including highly pathogenic strains, pose severe economic, animal and public health concerns. We implemented live bird market surveillance in Bangladesh to identify the subtypes of avian influenza A viruses in domestic waterfowl and market environments. We collected waterfowl samples monthly from 4 rural sites from 2007 to 2012 and environmental samples from 4 rural and 16 urban sites from 2009 to 2012. Samples were tested through real-time RT-PCR, virus culture, and sequencing to detect and characterize avian influenza A viruses. Among 4,308 waterfowl tested, 191 (4.4%) were positive for avian influenza A virus, including 74 (1.9%) avian influenza A/H5 subtype. The majority (99%, n = 73) of the influenza A/H5-positive samples were from healthy appearing waterfowl. Multiple subtypes, including H1N1, H1N3, H3N2, H3N6, H3N8, H4N1, H4N2, H4N6, H5N1 (clades 2.2.2, 2.3.2.1a, 2.3.4.2), H5N2, H6N1, H7N9, H9N2, H11N2 and H11N3, H11N6 were detected in waterfowl and environmental samples. Environmental samples tested positive for influenza A viruses throughout the year. Avian influenza viruses, including H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes were also identified in backyard and small-scale raised poultry. Live bird markets could be high-risk sites for harboring the viruses and have the potential to infect naive birds and humans exposed to them.

Costs of hospitalization with respiratory syncytial virus illness among children aged <5 years and the financial impact on households in Bangladesh, 2010.

BACKGROUND: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of acute respiratory illness in young children and results in significant economic burden. There is no vaccine to prevent RSV illness but a number of vaccines are in development. We conducted this study to estimate the costs of severe RSV illness requiring hospitalization among children <5 years and associated financial impact on households in Bangladesh. Data of this study could be useful for RSV vaccine development and also the value of various preventive strategies, including use of an RSV vaccine in children if one becomes available. METHODS: From May through October 2010, children aged <5 years with laboratory-confirmed RSV were identified from a sentinel influenza program database at four tertiary hospitals. Research assistants visited case-patients' homes after hospital discharge and administered a structured questionnaire to record direct medical costs (physician consultation fee, costs for hospital bed, medicines and diagnostic tests); non-medical costs (costs for food, lodging and transportation); indirect costs (caregivers' productivity loss), and coping strategies used by families to pay for treatment. We used WHO-Choice estimates for routine health care service costs. We added direct, indirect and health care service costs to calculate cost-per-episode of severe RSV illness. We used Monte Carlo simulation to estimate annual economic burden for severe RSV illness. FINDINGS: We interviewed caregivers of 39 persons hospitalized for RSV illness. The median direct cost for hospitalization was US$ 62 (interquartile range [IQR] = 43-101), indirect cost was US$ 19 (IQR = 11-29) and total cost was US$ 94 (IQR = 67-127). The median out-of-pocket cost was 24% of monthly household income of affected families (US$ 143), and >50% families borrowed money to meet treatment cost. We estimated that the median direct cost of RSV-associated hospitalization in children aged <5 years in Bangladesh was US$ 10 million (IQR: US$ 7-16 million), the median indirect cost was US$ 3.0 million (IQR: 2-5 million) in 2010. CONCLUSION: RSV-associated hospitalization among children aged <5 years represents a substantial economic burden in Bangladesh. Affected families frequently incurred considerable out of pocket and indirect costs for treatment that resulted in financial hardship.

Prevalence and clinical presentation of Rickettsia, Coxiella, Leptospira, Bartonella and chikungunya virus infections among hospital-based febrile patients from December 2008 to November 2009 in Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a study to identify Rickettsia, Coxiella, Leptospira, Bartonella, and Chikungunya virus infections among febrile patients presenting at hospitals in Bangladesh. METHODS: We collected blood samples from patients at six tertiary hospitals from December 2008 to November 2009 and performed laboratory tests at the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). RESULTS: Out of 720 enrolled patients, 263 (37%) were infected with Rickettsia; 132 patients had immunofluorescence antibody titer >64 against spotted fever, 63 patients against scrub typhus fever and 10 patients against typhus fever. Ten patients were identified with Coxiella. We isolated Leptospira from two patients and Bartonella from one patient. Ten patients had antibodies against Chikungunya virus. The proportion of patients who died was higher with rickettsial fever (5%) compared to those without a diagnosis of rickettsial infection (2%). None of the patients were initially diagnosed with rickettsial fever. CONCLUSIONS: Rickettsial infections are frequent yet under-recognized cause of febrile illness in Bangladesh. Clinical guidelines should be revised so that local clinicians can diagnose rickettsial infections and provide appropriate drug treatment.

Highly pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) virus infection among workers at live bird markets, Bangladesh, 2009-2010.

The risk for influenza A(H5N1) virus infection is unclear among poultry workers in countries where the virus is endemic. To assess H5N1 seroprevalence and seroconversion among workers at live bird markets (LBMs) in Bangladesh, we followed a cohort of workers from 12 LBMs with existing avian influenza surveillance. Serum samples from workers were tested for H5N1 antibodies at the end of the study or when LBM samples first had H5N1 virus-positive test results. Of 404 workers, 9 (2%) were seropositive at baseline. Of 284 workers who completed the study and were seronegative at baseline, 6 (2%) seroconverted (7 cases/100 poultry worker-years). Workers who frequently fed poultry, cleaned feces from pens, cleaned food/water containers, and did not wash hands after touching sick poultry had a 7.6 times higher risk for infection compared with workers who infrequently performed these behaviors. Despite frequent exposure to H5N1 virus, LBM workers showed evidence of only sporadic infection.

Incidence of and risk factors for hospital-acquired diarrhea in three tertiary care public hospitals in Bangladesh.

During April 2007-April 2010, surveillance physicians in adult and pediatric medicine wards of three tertiary public hospitals in Bangladesh identified patients who developed hospital-acquired diarrhea. We calculated incidence of hospital-acquired diarrhea. To identify risk factors, we compared these patients to randomly selected patients from the same wards who were admitted > 72 hours without having diarrhea. The incidence of hospital-acquired diarrhea was 4.8 cases per 1,000 patient-days. Children < 1 year of age were more likely to develop hospital-acquired diarrhea than older children. The risk of developing hospital-acquired diarrhea increased for each additional day of hospitalization beyond 72 hours, whereas exposure to antibiotics within 72 hours of admission decreased the risk. There were three deaths among case-patients; all were infants. Patients, particularly young children, are at risk for hospital-acquired diarrhea and associated deaths in Bangladeshi hospitals. Further research to identify the responsible organisms and transmission routes could inform prevention strategies.

Infrastructure and contamination of the physical environment in three Bangladeshi hospitals: putting infection control into context.

OBJECTIVE: This paper describes the physical structure and environmental contamination in selected hospital wards in three government hospitals in Bangladesh. METHODS: The qualitative research team conducted 48 hours of observation in six wards from three Bangladeshi tertiary hospitals in 2007. They recorded environmental contamination with body secretions and excretions and medical waste and observed ward occupant handwashing and use of personal protective equipment. They recorded number of persons, number of open doors and windows, and use of fans. They measured the ward area and informally observed waste disposal outside the wards. They conducted nine focus group discussions with doctors, nurses and support staff. RESULTS: A median of 3.7 persons were present per 10 m(2) of floor space in the wards. A median of 4.9 uncovered coughs or sneezes were recorded per 10 m(2) per hour per ward. Floors in the wards were soiled with saliva, spit, mucous, vomitus, feces and blood 125 times in 48 hours. Only two of the 12 patient handwashing stations had running water and none had soap. No disinfection was observed before or after using medical instruments. Used medical supplies were often discarded in open containers under the beds. Handwashing with soap was observed in only 32 of 3,373 handwashing opportunities noted during 48 hours. Mosquitoes and feral cats were commonly observed in the wards. CONCLUSIONS: The physical structure and environment of our study hospitals are conducive to the spread of infection to people in the wards. Low-cost interventions on hand hygiene and cleaning procedures for rooms and medical equipment should be developed and evaluated for their practicality and effectiveness.

Family caregivers in public tertiary care hospitals in Bangladesh: risks and opportunities for infection control.

BACKGROUND: Family caregivers are integral to patient care in Bangladeshi public hospitals. This study explored family caregivers' activities and their perceptions and practices related to disease transmission and prevention in public hospitals. METHODS: Trained qualitative researchers conducted a total of 48 hours of observation in 3 public tertiary care hospitals and 12 in-depth interviews with family caregivers. RESULTS: Family caregivers provided care 24 hours a day, including bedside nursing, cleaning care, and psychologic support. During observations, family members provided 2,065 episodes of care giving, 75% (1,544) of which involved close contact with patients. We observed family caregivers washing their hands with soap on only 4 occasions. The majority of respondents said diseases are transmitted through physical contact with surfaces and objects that have been contaminated with patient secretions and excretions, and avoiding contact with these contaminated objects would help prevent disease. CONCLUSION: Family caregivers are at risk for hospital-acquired infection from their repeated exposure to infectious agents combined with their inadequate hand hygiene and knowledge about disease transmission. Future research should explore potential strategies to improve family caregivers' knowledge about disease transmission and reduce family caregiver exposures, which may be accomplished by improving care provided by health care workers.

Medically unexplained illness and the diagnosis of hysterical conversion reaction (HCR) in women's medicine wards of Bangladeshi hospitals: a record review and qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Frequent reporting of cases of hysterical conversion reaction (HCR) among hospitalized female medical patients in Bangladesh's public hospital system led us to explore the prevalence of "HCR" diagnoses within hospitals and the manner in which physicians identify, manage, and perceive patients whom they diagnose with HCR. METHODS: We reviewed admission records from women's general medicine wards in two public hospitals to determine how often and at what point during hospitalization patients received diagnoses of HCR. We also interviewed 13 physicians about their practices and perceptions related to HCR. RESULTS: Of 2520 women admitted to the selected wards in 2008, 6% received diagnoses of HCR. HCR patients had wide-ranging symptoms including respiratory distress, headaches, chest pain, convulsions, and abdominal complaints. Most doctors diagnosed HCR in patients who had any medically-unexplained physical symptom. According to physician reports, women admitted to medical wards for HCR received brief diagnostic evaluations and initial treatment with short-acting tranquilizers or placebo agents. Some were referred to outpatient psychiatric treatment. Physicians reported that repeated admissions for HCR were common. Physicians noted various social factors associated with HCR, and they described failures of the current system to meet psychosocial needs of HCR patients. CONCLUSIONS: In these hospital settings, physicians assign HCR diagnoses frequently and based on vague criteria. We recommend providing education to increase general physicians' awareness, skill, and comfort level when encountering somatization and other common psychiatric issues. Given limited diagnostic capacity for all patients, we raise concern that when HCR is used as a "wastebasket" diagnosis for unexplained symptoms, patients with treatable medical conditions may go unrecognized. We also advocate introducing non-physician hospital personnel to address psychosocial needs of HCR patients, assist with triage in a system where both medical inpatient beds and psychiatric services are scarce commodities, and help ensure appropriate follow up.

Seasonality, timing, and climate drivers of influenza activity worldwide.

BACKGROUND: Although influenza is a vaccine-preventable disease that annually causes substantial disease burden, data on virus activity in tropical countries are limited. We analyzed publicly available influenza data to better understand the global circulation of influenza viruses. METHOD: We reviewed open-source, laboratory-confirmed influenza surveillance data. For each country, we abstracted data on the percentage of samples testing positive for influenza each epidemiologic week from the annual number of samples testing positive for influenza. The start of influenza season was defined as the first week when the proportion of samples that tested positive remained above the annual mean. We assessed the relationship between percentage of samples testing positive and mean monthly temperature with use of regression models. FINDINGS: We identified data on laboratory-confirmed influenza virus infection from 85 countries. More than one influenza epidemic period per year was more common in tropical countries (41%) than in temperate countries (15%). Year-round activity (ie, influenza virus identified each week having ≥ 10 specimens submitted) occurred in 3 (7%) of 43 temperate, 1 (17%) of 6 subtropical, and 11 (37%) of 30 tropical countries with available data (P = .006). Percentage positivity was associated with low temperature (P = .001). INTERPRETATION: Annual influenza epidemics occur in consistent temporal patterns depending on climate.

Incidence of respiratory virus-associated pneumonia in urban poor young children of Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2009-2011.

BACKGROUND: Pneumonia is the leading cause of childhood death in Bangladesh. We conducted a longitudinal study to estimate the incidence of virus-associated pneumonia in children aged <2 years in a low-income urban community in Dhaka, Bangladesh. METHODS: We followed a cohort of children for two years. We collected nasal washes when children presented with respiratory symptoms. Study physicians diagnosed children with cough and age-specific tachypnea and positive lung findings as pneumonia case-patients. We tested respiratory samples for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), rhinoviruses, human metapneumovirus (HMPV), influenza viruses, human parainfluenza viruses (HPIV 1, 2, 3), and adenoviruses using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays. RESULTS: Between April 2009-March 2011, we followed 515 children for 730 child-years. We identified a total of 378 pneumonia episodes, 77% of the episodes were associated with a respiratory viral pathogen. The overall incidence of pneumonia associated with a respiratory virus infection was 40/100 child-years. The annual incidence of pneumonia/100 child-years associated with a specific respiratory virus in children aged < 2 years was 12.5 for RSV, 6 for rhinoviruses, 6 for HMPV, 4 for influenza viruses, 3 for HPIV and 2 for adenoviruses. CONCLUSION: Young children in Dhaka are at high risk of childhood pneumonia and the majority of these episodes are associated with viral pathogens. Developing effective low-cost strategies for prevention are a high priority.

Early detection of pandemic (H1N1) 2009, Bangladesh.

To explore Bangladesh's ability to detect novel influenza, we examined a series of laboratory-confirmed pandemic (H1N1) 2009 cases. During June-July 2009, event-based surveillance identified 30 case-patients (57% travelers); starting July 29, sentinel sites identified 252 case-patients (1% travelers). Surveillance facilitated response weeks before the spread of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 infection to the general population.

Hospital-based prevalence of malaria and dengue in febrile patients in Bangladesh.

We conducted a nationwide study at six tertiary hospitals from December 2008 through November 2009 to investigate etiologies of febrile illnesses in Bangladesh. Febrile patients meeting a clinical case definition were enrolled from inpatient and outpatient medicine and pediatric units. We assessed 720 febrile patients over 12 months; 69 (9.6%) were positive for IgM antibodies against dengue virus by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and four malaria patients (0.56%) were confirmed with immuno-chromatography and microscopic slide tests. We identified dengue cases throughout the year from rural (49%) and urban areas (51%). We followed-up 55 accessible dengue-infected patients two months after their initial enrollment: 45 (82%) patients had fully recovered, 9 (16%) reported ongoing jaundice, fever and/or joint pain, and one died. Dengue infection is widespread across Bangladesh, but malaria is sufficiently uncommon that it should not be assumed as the cause of fever without laboratory confirmation.

Incidence of influenza-like illness and severe acute respiratory infection during three influenza seasons in Bangladesh, 2008-2010.

OBJECTIVE: To determine how much influenza contributes to severe acute respiratory illness (SARI), a leading cause of death in children, among people of all ages in Bangladesh. METHODS: Physicians obtained nasal and throat swabs to test for influenza virus from patients who were hospitalized within 7 days of the onset of severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) or who consulted as outpatients for influenza-like illness (ILI). A community health care utilization survey was conducted to determine the proportion of hospital catchment area residents who sought care at study hospitals and calculate the incidence of influenza using this denominator. FINDINGS: The estimated incidence of SARI associated with influenza in children < 5 years old was 6.7 (95% confidence interval, CI: 0-18.3); 4.4 (95% CI: 0-13.4) and 6.5 per 1000 person-years (95% CI: 0-8.3/1000) during the 2008, 2009 and 2010 influenza seasons, respectively. The incidence of SARI in people aged ≥ 5 years was 1.1 (95% CI: 0.4-2.0) and 1.3 (95% CI: 0.5-2.2) per 10,000 person-years during 2009 and 2010, respectively. The incidence of medically attended, laboratory-confirmed seasonal influenza in outpatients with ILI was 10 (95% CI: 8-14), 6.6 (95% CI: 5-9) and 17 per 100 person-years (95% CI: 13-22) during the 2008, 2009 and 2010 influenza seasons, respectively. CONCLUSION: Influenza-like illness is a frequent cause of consultation in the outpatient setting in Bangladesh. Children aged less than 5 years are hospitalized for influenza in greater proportions than children in other age groups.

Resumen OBJETIVO: Determinar en qué medida contribuye la gripe a la enfermedad respiratoria aguda grave (ERAG), una de las principales causas de muerte infantil, en personas de todas las edades en Bangladesh. MÉTODOS: Los médicos tomaron muestras de exudado nasal y faríngeo para realizar la prueba del virus de la gripe en pacientes que estuvieron hospitalizados en los 7 días posteriores al inicio de la infección respiratoria agua grave (IRAG) o que acudieron a consulta como pacientes ambulatorios por síndrome gripal (SG). Se llevó a cabo un estudio sobre el uso de la asistencia sanitaria comunitaria para determinar la proporción de residentes del área de cobertura del hospital que solicitaron asistencia médica en hospitales pertenecientes al estudio y se calculó la incidencia de la gripe con este denominador. RESULTADOS: La incidencia estimada de la IRAG asociada con la gripe en niños menores de 5 años fue del 6,7 (95% de intervalo de confianza, IC: 0-18,3); 4,4 (95% IC: 0-13,4) y 6,5 por 1000 años-persona (95% IC: 0-8,3/1000) durante las temporadas de gripe de 2008, 2009 y 2010, respectivamente. La incidencia de la IRAG en las personas con una edad igual o superior a 5 años fue del 1,1 (95% IC: 0,4- 2,0) y 1,3 (95% IC: 0,5-2,2) por 10 000 años-persona durante 2009 y 2010, respectivamente. La incidencia de la gripe de temporada tratada médicamente y confirmada en laboratorio en pacientes ambulatorios con SG fue de 10 (95% IC: 8-14); 6,6 (95% IC: 5-9) y 17 por 100 años-persona (95% IC: 13-22/1000) durante las temporadas de gripe de 2008, 2009 y 2010, respectivamente. CONCLUSIÓN: El síndrome gripal es una causa frecuente de consulta en los centros ambulatorios en Bangladesh. La proporción de niños menores de 5 años hospitalizados por gripe es mayor que la de niños en otros grupos de edad.

Résumé OBJECTIF: Déterminer l'impact de la grippe sur le syndrome respiratoire aigu sévère (SRAS), une cause majeure de la mortalité chez les enfants, chez les personnes de tous les âges au Bangladesh. MÉTHODES: Les médecins ont obtenu des écouvillons de prélèvement de nez et de gorge afin de tester le virus de la grippe chez des patients qui avaient été hospitalisés dans les 7 jours suivants l'apparition de l'infection respiratoire aiguë sévère (SRAS) ou qui avaient eu une consultation déambulatoire pour un syndrome de type grippal (STG). Une enquête sur l'utilisation des soins de santé communautaires a été effectuée afin de définir la proportion des riverains de la circonscription hospitalière, qui avaient reçu des soins dans les hôpitaux universitaires, et afin de calculer l'incidence de la grippe à l'aide de ce dénominateur. RÉSULTATS: L'estimation de l'incidence du SRAS associé à la grippe chez les enfants de moins de 5 ans était de 6,7 (intervalle de confiance de 95%, IC: 0-18.3); de 4,4 (IC de 95%: 0-13.4) et de 6,5 pour 1 000 personnes-années (IC de 95%: 0-8.3/1000) lors des saisons de la grippe de 2008, 2009 et 2010, respectivement. L'incidence du SRAS chez les personnes âgées de plus de 5 ans était de 1,1 (IC de 95%: 0.4-2.0) et 1,3 (IC de 95%: 0.5-2.2) pour 10 000 personnes-années en 2009 et 2010, respectivement. L'incidence de la grippe saisonnière traitée médicalement et confirmée en laboratoire chez les patients en consultation ambulatoire souffrant du STG était de 10 (IC de 95%: 8-14), 6,6 (IC de 95%: 5-9) et de 17 pour 100 personnes-années (IC de 95%: 13-22) lors des saisons de la grippe de 2008, 2009 et 2010, respectivement. CONCLUSION: Le syndrome de type grippal est une cause fréquente de consultation dans la configuration de la consultation ambulatoire au Bangladesh. Les enfants de moins de 5 ans sont hospitalisés pour la grippe dans des proportions supérieures aux enfants des autres groupes d'âge.

Rates of hospital-acquired respiratory illness in Bangladeshi tertiary care hospitals: results from a low-cost pilot surveillance strategy.

BACKGROUND: Patients hospitalized in resource-poor health care settings are at increased risk for hospital-acquired respiratory infections due to inadequate infrastructure. METHODS: From 1 April 2007 through 31 March 2008, we used a low-cost surveillance strategy to identify new onset of respiratory symptoms in patients hospitalized for >72 h and in health care workers in medicine and pediatric wards at 3 public tertiary care hospitals in Bangladesh. RESULTS: During 46,273 patient-days of observation, we recorded 136 episodes of hospital-acquired respiratory disease, representing 1.7% of all patient hospital admissions; rates by ward ranged from 0.8 to 15.8 cases per 1000 patient-days at risk. We identified 22 clusters of respiratory disease, 3 of which included both patients and health care workers. Of 226 of heath care workers who worked on our surveillance wards, 61 (27%) experienced a respiratory illness during the study period. The cost of surveillance was US$43 per month per ward plus 30 min per day in data collection. CONCLUSIONS: Patients on these study wards frequently experienced hospital-acquired respiratory infections, including 1 in every 20 patients hospitalized for >72 h on 1 ward. The surveillance method was useful in calculating rates of hospital-acquired respiratory illness and could be used to enhance capacity to quickly detect outbreaks of respiratory disease in health care facilities where systems for outbreak detection are currently limited and to test interventions to reduce transmission of respiratory pathogens in resource-poor settings.

Influenza in outpatient ILI case-patients in national hospital-based surveillance, Bangladesh, 2007-2008.

BACKGROUND: Recent population-based estimates in a Dhaka low-income community suggest that influenza was prevalent among children. To explore the epidemiology and seasonality of influenza throughout the country and among all age groups, we established nationally representative hospital-based surveillance necessary to guide influenza prevention and control efforts. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We conducted influenza-like illness and severe acute respiratory illness sentinel surveillance in 12 hospitals across Bangladesh during May 2007-December 2008. We collected specimens from 3,699 patients, 385 (10%) which were influenza positive by real time RT-PCR. Among the sample-positive patients, 192 (51%) were type A and 188 (49%) were type B. Hemagglutinin subtyping of type A viruses detected 137 (71%) A/H1 and 55 (29%) A/H3, but no A/H5 or other novel influenza strains. The frequency of influenza cases was highest among children aged under 5 years (44%), while the proportions of laboratory confirmed cases was highest among participants aged 11-15 (18%). We applied kriging, a geo-statistical technique, to explore the spatial and temporal spread of influenza and found that, during 2008, influenza was first identified in large port cities and then gradually spread to other parts of the country. We identified a distinct influenza peak during the rainy season (May-September). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our surveillance data confirms that influenza is prevalent throughout Bangladesh, affecting a wide range of ages and causing considerable morbidity and hospital care. A unimodal influenza seasonality may allow Bangladesh to time annual influenza prevention messages and vaccination campaigns to reduce the national influenza burden. To scale-up such national interventions, we need to quantify the national rates of influenza and the economic burden associated with this disease through further studies.

Avian influenza virus A (H5N1), detected through routine surveillance, in child, Bangladesh.

We identified avian influenza virus A (H5N1) infection in a child in Bangladesh in 2008 by routine influenza surveillance. The virus was of the same clade and phylogenetic subgroup as that circulating among poultry during the period. This case illustrates the value of routine surveillance for detection of novel influenza virus.

Molecular phylogeography of Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes in central Bangladesh.

Mosquitoes in the Culex pipiens complex are a major vector of numerous parasitic and arboviral diseases. Here we report the phylogeography of a prevalent Culex mosquito, Cx. quinquefasciatus, from three locations in Bangladesh: Dhaka, Savar and Mymensingh. Sequence analysis of the genes encoding mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit II, nuclear elongation factor-1 alpha, and acetylcholinesterase-2 revealed the lack of a population genetic structure among the three locations. Moreover, the highly divergent ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 2 suggests that this locus has not evolved in concert. The results further show evidence of historical introgression of internal transcribed spacer 2 from Cx. pipiens to Cx. quinquefasciatus of Bangladesh, and that the introgression occurred before Cx. quinquefasciatus had dispersed within this region. The study also reveals historical population expansion in this region, followed by a post-expansion Wolbachia sweep.

Comparison of risks and benefits of normal vaginal and caesarian section deliveries in a public tertiary hospital in Bangladesh.

A comparative study was done to compare risks and benefits of normal vaginal and caesarean section delivery. One hundred women between 36 to 40 weeks gestation were enrolled and face to face interviews and clinical assessments were conducted both in antenatal and postnatal period. Though 98% preferred vaginal birth only 45% eventually had so. Both immediate and late complications were considerably more in caesarian section than in normal vaginal delivery. Mean duration of sickness and mean days required for returning to normal activities were also higher in case of caesarian section. The average cost for Caesarian was $70 while for normal vaginal delivery it was $28. Caesarean delivery has some associated risks and complications. It is expensive than normal vaginal delivery. It will help practitioners to reduce the rate of primary caesarean delivery and the pregnant mothers should be informed about risks and benefits of various birth options.