Immune response to cold exposure: Role of γδ T cells and TLR2-mediated inflammation.

The mammalian body possesses remarkable adaptability to cold exposure, involving intricate adjustments in cellular metabolism, ultimately leading to thermogenesis. However, cold-induced stress can impact immune response, primarily through noradrenaline-mediated pathways. In our study, we utilized a rat model subjected to short-term or long-term mild cold exposure to investigate systemic immune response during the cold acclimation. To provide human relevance, we included a group of regular cold swimmers in our study. Our research revealed complex relationship between cold exposure, neural signaling, immune response, and thermogenic regulation. One-day cold exposure triggered stress response, including cytokine production in white adipose tissue, subsequently activating brown adipose tissue, and inducing thermogenesis. We further studied systemic immune response, including the proportion of leukocytes and cytokines production. Interestingly, γδ T cells emerged as possible regulators in the broader systemic response, suggesting their possible contribution in the dynamic process of cold adaptation. We employed RNA-seq to gain further insights into the mechanisms by which γδ T cells participate in the response to cold. Additionally, we challenged rats exposed to cold with the Toll-like receptor 2 agonist, showing significant modulation of immune response. These findings significantly contribute to understanding of the physiological acclimation that occur in response to cold exposure.

Continuous short-term acclimation to moderate cold elicits cardioprotection in rats, and alters ß-adrenergic signaling and immune status.

Moderate cold acclimation (MCA) is a non-invasive intervention mitigating effects of various pathological conditions including myocardial infarction. We aim to determine the shortest cardioprotective regimen of MCA and the response of ß1/2/3-adrenoceptors (ß-AR), its downstream signaling, and inflammatory status, which play a role in cell-survival during myocardial infarction. Adult male Wistar rats were acclimated (9 °C, 1-3-10 days). Infarct size, echocardiography, western blotting, ELISA, mitochondrial respirometry, receptor binding assay, and quantitative immunofluorescence microscopy were carried out on left ventricular myocardium and brown adipose tissue (BAT). MultiPlex analysis of cytokines and chemokines in serum was accomplished. We found that short-term MCA reduced myocardial infarction, improved resistance of mitochondria to Ca2+-overload, and downregulated ß1-ARs. The ß2-ARs/protein kinase B/Akt were attenuated while ß3-ARs translocated on the T-tubular system suggesting its activation. Protein kinase G (PKG) translocated to sarcoplasmic reticulum and phosphorylation of AMPKThr172 increased after 10 days. Principal component analysis revealed a significant shift in cytokine/chemokine serum levels on day 10 of acclimation, which corresponds to maturation of BAT. In conclusion, short-term MCA increases heart resilience to ischemia without any negative side effects such as hypertension or hypertrophy. Cold-elicited cardioprotection is accompanied by ß1/2-AR desensitization, activation of the ß3-AR/PKG/AMPK pathways, and an immunomodulatory effect.

Nestin expression in intact and hypertrophic myocardium of spontaneously hypertensive rats during aging.

Nestin is a unique intermediate filament expressed for a short period in the developing heart. It was also documented in several cell types of the adult myocardium under pathological conditions such as myocardial infarction or fibrosis. However, circumstances of nestin re-occurrence in the diseased or aging heart have not been elucidated yet. In this work we immunohistochemically detected nestin to determine its expression and distribution pattern in the left ventricular myocardium of normotensive Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats and in the hypertrophic ones of spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats, both at the age of 1 and 1.5 year. No nestin+ cells were identified in the intact myocardium of 1-year-old WKY rats, whereas in the aged 1.5-year-old WKY rats nestin+ endothelial cells in some blood vessels were discovered. In the hypertrophic myocardium of all SHR rats, nestin was rarely detected in desmin+ vimentin- cardiomyocytes and in some vimentin+ interstitial cells often accumulated in clusters, varying in intensity of desmin immunoreactivity. Moreover, nestin was infrequently expressed in the endothelial cells of some myocardial blood vessels in 1-year-old SHR rats, but not in 1.5-year-old ones. Quantitative image analysis of nestin expression in the myocardium confirmed significant increase in 1.5-year-old WKY rats and in SHR rats of both ages compared to the intact 1-year-old WKY rats. This study firstly documents nestin re-expression indicating cytoskeletal remodelling in different cell types of the aging intact and chronically pressure over-loaded hypertrophied myocardium. Our findings confirm nestin involvement in complex changes during myocardial hypertrophy and progressive aging.

Desmin Knock-Out Cardiomyopathy: A Heart on the Verge of Metabolic Crisis.

Desmin mutations cause familial and sporadic cardiomyopathies. In addition to perturbing the contractile apparatus, both desmin deficiency and mutated desmin negatively impact mitochondria. Impaired myocardial metabolism secondary to mitochondrial defects could conceivably exacerbate cardiac contractile dysfunction. We performed metabolic myocardial phenotyping in left ventricular cardiac muscle tissue in desmin knock-out mice. Our analyses revealed decreased mitochondrial number, ultrastructural mitochondrial defects, and impaired mitochondria-related metabolic pathways including fatty acid transport, activation, and catabolism. Glucose transporter 1 and hexokinase-1 expression and hexokinase activity were increased. While mitochondrial creatine kinase expression was reduced, fetal creatine kinase expression was increased. Proteomic analysis revealed reduced expression of proteins involved in electron transport mainly of complexes I and II, oxidative phosphorylation, citrate cycle, beta-oxidation including auxiliary pathways, amino acid catabolism, and redox reactions and oxidative stress. Thus, desmin deficiency elicits a secondary cardiac mitochondriopathy with severely impaired oxidative phosphorylation and fatty and amino acid metabolism. Increased glucose utilization and fetal creatine kinase upregulation likely portray attempts to maintain myocardial energy supply. It may be prudent to avoid medications worsening mitochondrial function and other metabolic stressors. Therapeutic interventions for mitochondriopathies might also improve the metabolic condition in desmin deficient hearts.

Cardioprotective and Vasoprotective Effects of Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone and Urocortins: Receptors and Signaling.

Despite the recent progress in research and therapy, cardiovascular diseases are still the most common cause of death worldwide, thus new approaches are still needed. The aim of this review is to highlight the cardioprotective potential of urocortins and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and their signaling. It has been documented that urocortins and CRH reduce ischemic and reperfusion (I/R) injury, prevent reperfusion ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation, and improve cardiac contractility during reperfusion. Urocortin-induced increase in cardiac tolerance to I/R depends mainly on the activation of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-2 (CRHR2) and its downstream pathways including tyrosine kinase Src, protein kinase A and C (PKA, PKCε) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2). It was discussed the possibility of the involvement of interleukin-6, Janus kinase-2 and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and microRNAs in the cardioprotective effect of urocortins. Additionally, phospholipase-A2 inhibition, mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPT-pore) blockade and suppression of apoptosis are involved in urocortin-elicited cardioprotection. Chronic administration of urocortin-2 prevents the development of postinfarction cardiac remodeling. Urocortin possesses vasoprotective and vasodilator effect; the former is mediated by PKC activation and prevents an impairment of endothelium-dependent coronary vasodilation after I/R in the isolated heart, while the latter includes both cAMP and cGMP signaling and its downstream targets. As CRHR2 is expressed by both cardiomyocytes and vascular endothelial cells. Urocortins mediate both endothelium-dependent and -independent relaxation of coronary arteries.

Mitochondrial genome modulates myocardial Akt/Glut/HK salvage pathway in spontaneously hypertensive rats adapted to chronic hypoxia.

Recently we have shown that adaptation to continuous normobaric hypoxia (CNH) decreases myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and in a conplastic strain (SHR-mtBN). The protective effect was stronger in the latter group characterized by a selective replacement of the SHR mitochondrial genome with that of a more ischemia-resistant Brown Norway strain. The aim of the present study was to examine the possible involvement of the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-dependent pathway of the protein kinase B/glucose transporters/hexokinase (Akt/GLUT/HK) in this mitochondrial genome-related difference of the cardioprotective phenotype. Adult male rats were exposed for 3 wk to CNH ([Formula: see text] 0.1). The expression of dominant isoforms of Akt, GLUT, and HK in left ventricular myocardium was determined by real-time RT-PCR and Western blotting. Subcellular localization of GLUTs was assessed by quantitative immunofluorescence. Whereas adaptation to hypoxia markedly upregulated protein expression of HK2, GLUT1, and GLUT4 in both rat strains, Akt2 protein level was significantly increased in SHR-mtBN only. Interestingly, a higher content of HK2 was revealed in the sarcoplasmic reticulum-enriched fraction in SHR-mtBN after CNH. The increased activity of HK determined in the mitochondrial fraction after CNH in both strains suggested an increase of HK association with mitochondria. Interestingly, HIF1a mRNA increased and HIF2a mRNA decreased after CNH, the former effect being more pronounced in SHR-mtBN than in SHR. Pleiotropic effects of upregulated Akt2 along with HK translocation to mitochondria and mitochondria-associated membranes can potentially contribute to a stronger CNH-afforded cardioprotection in SHR-mtBN compared with progenitor SHR.

Cardioprotective Regimen of Adaptation to Chronic Hypoxia Diversely Alters Myocardial Gene Expression in SHR and SHR-mtBN Conplastic Rat Strains.

Adaptation to continuous normobaric hypoxia (CNH) protects the heart against acute ischemia/reperfusion injury. Recently, we have demonstrated the infarct size-limiting effect of CNH also in hearts of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and in conplastic SHR-mtBN strain characterized by the selective replacement of the mitochondrial genome of SHR with that of more ischemia-resistant Brown Norway rats. Importantly, cardioprotective effect of CNH was more pronounced in SHR-mtBN than in SHR. Thus, here we aimed to identify candidate genes which may contribute to this difference between the strains. Rats were adapted to CNH (FiO2 0.1) for 3 weeks or kept at room air as normoxic controls. Screening of 45 transcripts was performed in left ventricles using Biomark Chip. Significant differences between the groups were analyzed by univariate analysis (ANOVA) and the genes contributing to the differences between the strains unmasked by CNH were identified by multivariate analyses (PCA, SOM). ANOVA with Bonferroni correction revealed that transcripts differently affected by CNH in SHR and SHR-mtBN belong predominantly to lipid metabolism and antioxidant defense. PCA divided four experimental groups into two main clusters corresponding to chronically hypoxic and normoxic groups, and differences between the strains were more pronounced after CNH. Subsequently, the following 14 candidate transcripts were selected by PCA, and confirmed by SOM analyses, that can contribute to the strain differences in cardioprotective phenotype afforded by CNH: Alkaline ceramidase 2 (Acer2), Fatty acid translocase (Cd36), Aconitase 1 (Aco1), Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (Pparg), Hemoxygenase 2 (Hmox2), Phospholipase A2 group IIA (Ppla2g2a), Dynamin-related protein (Drp), Protein kinase C epsilon (Pkce), Hexokinase 2 (Hk2), Sphingomyelin synthase 2 (Sgms2), Caspase 3 (Casp3), Mitofussin 1 (Mfn1), Phospholipase A2 group V (Pla2g5), and Catalase (Cat). Our data suggest that the stronger cardioprotective phenotype of conplastic SHR-mtBN strain afforded by CNH is associated with either preventing the drop or increasing the expression of transcripts related to energy metabolism, antioxidant response and mitochondrial dynamics.

Anti-arrhythmic Cardiac Phenotype Elicited by Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia Is Associated With Alterations in Connexin-43 Expression, Phosphorylation, and Distribution.

Remodeling of the cellular distribution of gap junctions formed mainly by connexin-43 (Cx43) can be related to the increased incidence of cardiac arrhythmias. It has been shown that adaptation to chronic intermittent hypobaric hypoxia (IHH) attenuates the incidence and severity of ischemic and reperfusion ventricular arrhythmias and increases the proportion of anti-arrhythmic n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) in heart phospholipids. Wistar rats were exposed to simulated IHH (7,000 m, 8-h/day, 35 exposures) and compared with normoxic controls (N). Cx43 expression, phosphorylation, localization and n-3 PUFA proportion were analyzed in left ventricular myocardium. Compared to N, IHH led to higher expression of total Cx43, its variant phosphorylated at Ser368 [p-Cx43(Ser368)], which maintains "end to end" communication, as well as p-Cx43(Ser364/365), which facilitates conductivity. By contrast, expression of non-phosphorylated Cx43 and p-Cx43(Ser278/289), attenuating intercellular communication, was lower in IHH than in N. IHH also resulted in increased expression of protein kinase A and protein kinase G while casein kinase 1 did not change compared to N. In IHH group, which exhibited reduced incidence of ischemic ventricular arrhythmias, Cx43 and p-Cx43(Ser368) were more abundant at "end to end" gap junctions than in N group and this difference was preserved after acute regional ischemia (10 min). We further confirmed higher n-3 PUFA proportion in heart phospholipids after adaptation to IHH, which was even further increased by ischemia. Our results suggest that adaptation to IHH alters expression, phosphorylation and distribution of Cx43 as well as cardioprotective n-3PUFA proportion suggesting that the anti-arrhythmic phenotype elicited by IHH can be at least partly related to the stabilization of the "end to end" conductivity between cardiomyocytes during brief ischemia.

Adaptation to chronic continuous hypoxia potentiates Akt/HK2 anti-apoptotic pathway during brief myocardial ischemia/reperfusion insult.

Adaptation to chronic hypoxia represents a potential cardioprotective intervention reducing the extent of acute ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, which is a major cause of death worldwide. The main objective of this study was to investigate the anti-apoptotic Akt/hexokinase 2 (HK2) pathway in hypoxic hearts subjected to I/R insult. Hearts isolated from male Wistar rats exposed either to continuous normobaric hypoxia (CNH; 10% O2) or to room air for 3 weeks were perfused according to Langendorff and subjected to 10 min of no-flow ischemia and 10 min of reperfusion. The hearts were collected either after ischemia or after reperfusion and used for protein analyses and quantitative fluorescence microscopy. The CNH resulted in increased levels of HK1 and HK2 proteins and the total HK activity after ischemia compared to corresponding normoxic group. Similarly, CNH hearts exhibited increased ischemic level of Akt protein phosphorylated on Ser473. The CNH also strengthened the interaction of HK2 with mitochondria and prevented downregulation of mitochondrial creatine kinase after reperfusion. The Bax/Bcl-2 ratio was significantly lower after I/R in CNH hearts than in normoxic ones, suggesting a lower probability of apoptosis. In conclusion, the Akt/HK2 pathway is likely to play a role in the development of a cardioprotective phenotype of CNH by preventing the detachment of HK2 from mitochondria at reperfusion period and decreases the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio during I/R insult, thereby lowering the probability of apoptosis activation in the mitochondrial compartment.