B cell-derived IL-1ß and IL-6 drive T cell reconstitution following lymphoablation.

Understanding the mechanisms of T cell homeostatic expansion is crucial for clinical applications of lymphoablative therapies. We previously established that T cell recovery in mouse heart allograft recipients treated with anti-thymocyte globulin (mATG) critically depends on B cells and is mediated by B cell-derived soluble factors. B cell production of interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-6 is markedly upregulated after heart allotransplantation and lymphoablation. Neutralizing IL-1ß or IL-6 with mAb or the use of recipients lacking mature IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-1R, MyD88, or IL-6R impair CD4+ and CD8+ T cell recovery and significantly enhance the graft-prolonging efficacy of lymphoablation. Adoptive co-transfer experiments demonstrate a direct effect of IL-6 but not IL-1ß on T lymphocytes. Furthermore, B cells incapable of IL-1ß or IL-6 production have diminished capacity to mediate T cell reconstitution and initiate heart allograft rejection upon adoptive transfer into mATG treated B cell deficient recipients. These findings reveal the essential role of B cell-derived IL-1ß and IL-6 during homeostatic T cell expansion in a clinically relevant model of lymphoablation.

Modular Polymer Antigens To Optimize Immunity.

Subunit vaccines can have excellent safety profiles, but their ability to give rise to robust immune responses is often compromised. For glycan-based vaccines, insufficient understanding of B and T cell epitope combinations that yield optimal immune activation hinders optimization. To determine which antigen features promote desired IgG responses, we synthesized epitope-functionalized polymers using ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) and assessed the effect of B and T cell epitope loading. The most robust responses were induced by polymers with a high valency of B and T cell epitopes. Additionally, IgG responses were greater for polymers with T cell epitopes that are readily liberated upon endosomal processing. Combining these criteria, we used ROMP to generate a nontoxic, polymeric antigen that elicited stronger antibody responses than a comparable protein conjugate. These findings highlight principles for designing synthetic antigens that elicit strong IgG responses against inherently weak immune targets such as glycans.

Antigen structure affects cellular routing through DC-SIGN.

Dendritic cell (DC) lectins mediate the recognition, uptake, and processing of antigens, but they can also be coopted by pathogens for infection. These distinct activities depend upon the routing of antigens within the cell. Antigens directed to endosomal compartments are degraded, and the peptides are presented on major histocompatibility complex class II molecules, thereby promoting immunity. Alternatively, HIV-1 can avoid degradation, as virus engagement with C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), such as DC-SIGN (DC-specific ICAM-3-grabbing nonintegrin) results in trafficking to surface-accessible invaginated pockets. This process appears to enable infection of T cells in trans We sought to explore whether antigen fate upon CLR-mediated internalization was affected by antigen physical properties. To this end, we employed the ring-opening metathesis polymerization to generate glycopolymers that each display multiple copies of mannoside ligand for DC-SIGN, yet differ in length and size. The rate and extent of glycopolymer internalization depended upon polymer structure-longer polymers were internalized more rapidly and more efficiently than were shorter polymers. The trafficking, however, did not differ, and both short and longer polymers colocalized with transferrin-labeled early endosomes. To explore how DC-SIGN directs larger particles, such as pathogens, we induced aggregation of the polymers to access particulate antigens. Strikingly, these particulate antigens were diverted to the invaginated pockets that harbor HIV-1. Thus, antigen structure has a dramatic effect on DC-SIGN-mediated uptake and trafficking. These findings have consequences for the design of synthetic vaccines. Additionally, the results suggest strategies for targeting DC reservoirs that harbor viral pathogens.

Interleukin-27 promotes CD8+ T cell reconstitution following antibody-mediated lymphoablation.

Antibody-mediated lymphoablation is used in solid organ and stem cell transplantation and autoimmunity. Using murine anti-thymocyte globulin (mATG) in a mouse model of heart transplantation, we previously reported that the homeostatic recovery of CD8+ T cells requires help from depletion-resistant memory CD4+ T cells delivered through CD40-expressing B cells. This study investigated the mechanisms by which B cells mediate CD8+ T cell proliferation in lymphopenic hosts. While CD8+ T cell recovery required MHC class I expression in the host, the reconstitution occurred independently of MHC class I, MHC class II, or CD80/CD86 expression on B cells. mATG lymphoablation upregulated the B cell expression of several cytokine genes, including IL-15 and IL-27, in a CD4-dependent manner. Neither treatment with anti-CD122 mAb nor the use of IL-15Rα-/- recipients altered CD8+ T cell recovery after mATG treatment, indicating that IL-15 may be dispensable for T cell proliferation in our model. Instead, IL-27 neutralization or the use of IL-27Rα-/- CD8+ T cells inhibited CD8+ T cell proliferation and altered the phenotype and cytokine profile of reconstituted CD8+ T cells. Our findings uncover what we believe is a novel role of IL-27 in lymphopenia-induced CD8+ T cell proliferation and suggest that targeting B cell-derived cytokines may increase the efficacy of lymphoablation and improve transplant outcomes.

Chemoselective, Postpolymerization Modification of Bioactive, Degradable Polymers.

Degradable polymers promote sustainability, mitigate environmental impact, and facilitate biological applications. Tailoring degradable polymers is challenging because installing functional group-rich side chains is difficult when the backbone itself is susceptible to degradation. A convenient means of side chain installation is through postpolymerization modification (PPM). In functionalizing polyoxazinones, a class of degradable polymers generated by the ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP), we predictably found PPM challenging. Even the versatile azide-alkyne cycloaddition click reaction was ineffective. To solve this problem, we screened PPM reactions whose efficiencies could be assessed using photochemistry (excimer formation). The mildest, pH-neutral process was functionalization of a ketone-containing polymer to yield either oxime (acid labile)- or alkyoxylamine (stable)-substituted polymers. Using this approach, we equipped polymers with fluorophores, reporter groups, and bioactive epitopes. These modifications imbued the polymers with distinctive spectral properties and biological activities. Thus, polyoxazinones are now tunable through a modular method to diversify these macromolecules' function.

Multivalent Antigens for Promoting B and T Cell Activation.

Efficacious vaccines require antigens that elicit productive immune system activation. Antigens that afford robust antibody production activate both B and T cells. Elucidating the antigen properties that enhance B-T cell communication is difficult with traditional antigens. We therefore used ring-opening metathesis polymerization to access chemically defined, multivalent antigens containing both B and T cell epitopes to explore how antigen structure impacts B cell and T cell activation and communication. The bifunctional antigens were designed so that the backbone substitution level of each antigenic epitope could be quantified using (19)F NMR. The T cell peptide epitope was appended so that it could be liberated in B cells via the action of the endosomal protease cathepsin D, and this design feature was critical for T cell activation. Antigens with high BCR epitope valency induce greater BCR-mediated internalization and T cell activation than did low valency antigens, and these high-valency polymeric antigens were superior to protein antigens. We anticipate that these findings can guide the design of more effective vaccines.

Synthetic antigens reveal dynamics of BCR endocytosis during inhibitory signaling.

B cells detect foreign antigens through their B cell antigen receptor (BCR). The BCR, when engaged by antigen, initiates a signaling cascade. Concurrent with signaling is endocytosis of the BCR complex, which acts to downregulate signaling and facilitate uptake of antigen for processing and display on the cell surface. The relationship between signaling and BCR endocytosis is poorly defined. Here, we explore the interplay between BCR endocytosis and antigens that either promote or inhibit B cell activation. Specifically, synthetic antigens were generated that engage the BCR alone or both the BCR and the inhibitory co-receptor CD22. The lectin CD22, a member of the Siglec family, binds sialic acid-containing glycoconjugates found on host tissues, inhibiting BCR signaling to prevent erroneous B cell activation. At low concentrations, antigens that can cocluster the BCR and CD22 promote rapid BCR endocytosis; whereas, slower endocytosis occurs with antigens that bind only the BCR. At higher antigen concentrations, rapid BCR endocytosis occurs upon treatment with either stimulatory or inhibitory antigens. Endocytosis of the BCR, in response to synthetic antigens, results in its entry into early endocytic compartments. Although the CD22-binding antigens fail to activate key regulators of antigen presentation (e.g., Syk), they also promote BCR endocytosis, indicating that inhibitory antigens can be internalized. Together, our observations support a functional role for BCR endocytosis in downregulating BCR signaling. The reduction of cell surface BCR levels in the absence of B cell activation should raise the threshold for BCR subsequent activation. The ability of the activating synthetic antigens to trigger both signaling and entry of the BCR into early endosomes suggests strategies for targeted antigen delivery.

Glycosaminoglycan-binding hydrogels enable mechanical control of human pluripotent stem cell self-renewal.

Reaping the promise of human embryonic stem (hES) cells hinges on effective defined culture conditions. Efforts to identify chemically defined environments for hES cell propagation would benefit from understanding the relevant functional properties of the substratum. Biological materials are often employed as substrata, but their complexity obscures a molecular level analysis of their relevant attributes. Because the properties of hydrogels can be tuned and altered systematically, these materials can reveal the impact of substratum features on cell fate decisions. By tailoring the peptide displayed to cells and the substrate mechanical properties, a hydrogel was generated that binds hES cell surface glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and functions robustly in a defined culture medium to support long-term hES cell self-renewal. A key attribute of the successful GAG-binding hydrogels is their stiffness. Only stiff substrates maintain hES cell proliferation and pluripotency. These findings indicate that cells can respond to mechanical information transmitted via GAG engagement. Additionally, we found that the stiff matrices afforded activation of the paralogous proteins YAP/TAZ, which are transcriptional coactivators implicated in mechanosensing and hES cell pluripotency. These results indicate that the substratum mechanics can be tuned to activate specific pathways linked to pluripotency. Because several different hES and induced pluripotent stem cell lines respond similarly, we conclude that stiff substrata are more effective for the long-term propagation of human pluripotent stem cells.