The first 1001 days: A scoping review of parenting interventions strengthening good enough parenting in parents with intellectual disabilities.

There are concerns about parents' parenting skills with intellectual disabilities. However, it is reported that parents with intellectual disabilities show good enough parenting if they are supported effectively and in line with their needs. This scoping review identifies and critically evaluates preventive interventions for parents with intellectual disabilities and a cumulation of multiple and complex problems that aim to prepare them for good enough parenting. Six interventions were identified, with preliminary to strong indications of effectiveness. Although none of the interventions focused on all conditions of good enough parenting and only one intervention incorporated all seven key elements to effectively work with parents with intellectual disabilities, the limited evidence on the effectiveness of these interventions suggests that significant and societally relevant effects on parents' knowledge and skills can be attained. This suggests that more comprehensive early preventive interventions with rigorous evaluations can have a significant impact.

Parental socialization of guilt and shame in early childhood.

Self-conscious emotions emerge early in human development and they help children navigate social relationships. Little is known about the socialization of self-conscious emotions in early childhood. We theorized that parental mental state language use and warmth would be important for young children's self-conscious emotions and their consequent prosocial behaviors. Ninety-eight children residing in the Netherlands (52% girls) aged 2-5 (M = 48.66 months, SD = 13.50 months) visited the research lab with one parent. First, we observed parental mental state language and warmth. Afterward, children were led to believe that they caused a mishap (i.e., accidentally breaking the experimenter's favorite toy) to evoke their guilt and shame, which we micro-coded. In subsequent tasks, we observed children's helping behaviors toward the experimenter. We found that the combination of frequent parental mental state language and high warmth was associated with children's quicker helping to the previously harmed experimenter across toddlerhood and early childhood. More guilt was related to more helping whereas more shame-like avoidance was related to less helping. Our findings based on the sample of Dutch parents and children suggest that, parental frequent mental state talk, in combination with high warmth, may promote children's ability to repair social relationships and behave prosocially after mishaps.

"I'm not here to push you:" raising adolescents' treatment engagement via autonomy support.

More than 45% of adolescents with aggressive behavior problems drop out of treatment prematurely. Building on insights from self-determination theory, we examined in three studies whether clinicians can raise adolescents' treatment engagement by supporting their autonomy. In an interview study (Study 1), clinicians (N = 16; 43.8% female; ages 30-57) spontaneously described 12 times more autonomy-supportive than controlling strategies to engage adolescents. In a preregistered experiment (Study 2), clinicians (N = 68; 88.2% female; ages 23-65) were confronted with videos of adolescents displaying resistance. We manipulated the DSM diagnosis of adolescents to indicate either aggressive behavior problems or other problems. We found that, regardless of diagnosis, clinicians used both autonomy-supportive strategies (57.7% of responses) and controlling strategies (39.3%), suggesting that applying autonomy support can be challenging with any adolescent displaying resistance. In an experimental study (Study 3), adolescents (N = 252; 50.0% female; ages 12-17) reported higher therapeutic alliance (d = 0.95, 95% CI [0.80, 1.10]) and treatment engagement (d = 0.77, 95% CI [0.63, 0.91]) after listening to audio-recorded autonomy-supportive versus controlling responses from clinicians, regardless of whether these adolescents had aggressive behavior problems. Overall, this research suggests that clinicians can raise adolescents' treatment engagement through autonomy support.

Does Social and Economic Disadvantage Predict Lower Engagement with Parenting Interventions? An Integrative Analysis Using Individual Participant Data.

There is a social gradient to the determinants of health; low socioeconomic status (SES) has been linked to reduced educational attainment and employment prospects, which in turn affect physical and mental wellbeing. One goal of preventive interventions, such as parenting programs, is to reduce these health inequalities by supporting families with difficulties that are often patterned by SES. Despite these intentions, a recent individual participant data (IPD) meta-analysis of the Incredible Years (IY) parenting program found no evidence for differential benefit by socioeconomic disadvantage (Gardner et al. in Public Health Resesearch 5, 1-144, 2017). However, it did not examine whether this was influenced by engagement in the intervention. Using intervention arm data from this pooled dataset (13 trials; N = 1078), we examined whether there was an SES gradient to intervention attendance (an indicator of engagement). We ran mixed-effects Poisson regression models to estimate incidence rate ratios (IRRs) for program attendance for each of five (binary) markers of SES: low income; unemployment; low education status; teen parent; and lone parent status. The multilevel structure of the data allowed for comparison of within-trial and between-trial effects, including tests for contextual effects. We found evidence that low SES was associated with reduced attendance at parenting programs-an 8-19% reduction depending on the SES marker. However, there was no evidence that this association is impacted by differences in SES composition between trials or by the attendance levels of higher-SES families. The findings underscore the importance of developing and prioritizing strategies that enable engagement in parenting interventions and encourage program attendance by low-SES families.

Longer-Term Outcomes of the Incredible Years Parenting Intervention.

Conduct problems can develop into behavior disorders and put children at risk for other mental health problems. Parenting interventions have been shown to successfully reduce conduct problems and are often expected to prevent the development of broader mental health problems. Few studies have evaluated the longer-term and broader effects of these interventions. To what extent are parenting intervention effects sustained in the years after the intervention? And do effects pertain to conduct problems specifically, or do they also affect broader aspects of children's mental health? We used a randomized controlled trial to assess the longer-term (2.5 years) effects of the Incredible Years parenting intervention on children's conduct problems in an indicated prevention setting (N = 387; 79% retention rate). Using a multi-method (survey and computerized tasks) and multi-informant (parents, teachers, and children) approach, we tested whether initial effects on conduct problems were sustained, and whether Incredible Years had broader effects on children's peer problems, emotional problems, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, attention and inhibition deficits, and service use. Incredible Years, relative to control (no intervention), led to sustained reductions in parent-reported conduct problems (Cohen's d = 0.31), but not teacher- and child-reported conduct problems. There were no broader benefits: Incredible Years did not reduce children's peer problems, emotional problems, ADHD-symptoms, attention and inhibition deficits, or their service use. Improvements in parents' perceptions of child conduct problems sustained until 2.5 years later. Our findings do not show benefits of Incredible Years as a preventive intervention for children's broader mental health.

Proactive aggression in early school-aged children with externalizing behavior problems: A longitudinal study on the influence of empathy in response to distress.

The course of proactive aggressive behavior may be affected by empathy in response to sadness and distress of others. The aim of the current study is to examine empathy in response to sadness and distress and its relation to proactive and reactive aggression in a clinical sample of children with externalizing behavior problems. At baseline (T1) and 12 months later (T2), parents and teachers of 104 six- and seven-year-old children completed the Instrument for Reactive and Proactive Aggression. At T1, parents and teachers also reported empathy in response to sadness and distress on the Griffith Empathy Measure. Findings show that low levels of parent-reported empathy at baseline were specifically associated with high parent-reported proactive aggression but not with reactive aggression. Similarly, low teacher-reported empathy was specifically related to high teacher-reported proactive aggression. Furthermore, high parent-reported but not teacher-reported empathy at baseline was associated with low proactive aggression at 12 months after controlling for proactive aggression at baseline. The conclusions support the notion that in the study of the course of aggression in clinical groups, the distinction between proactive and reactive aggression as well as the study of empathy in response to distress is relevant for a better understanding and might be taken into account in the development of future interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record

Intervention Effectiveness of The Incredible Years: New Insights Into Sociodemographic and Intervention-Based Moderators.

We tested the effectiveness of the preventive behavioral parent training (BPT) program, The Incredible Years (IY), and the independent effects of previously suggested sociodemographic and intervention-based moderator variables (i.e., initial severity of externalizing problem behavior, child gender, social economic status, family composition, and number of sessions parents attended), in a large-scale randomized controlled trial. Questionnaire and observation data from 387 parents and children ages 4-8 years (Mage= 6.21, SD = 1.33, 55.30% boys) across pretest, posttest, and 4-month follow-up were analyzed, using full intention-to-treat analyses and correcting for multiple testing. IY was successful in decreasing parent-reported child externalizing behavior (Cohen's d = 0.20 at posttest, d = 0.08 at follow-up), increasing parent-reported (d = 0.49, d = 0.45) and observed (d = 0.06, d = 0.02) positive parenting behavior, and decreasing parent-reported negative parenting behavior (d = 0.29, d = 0.25). No intervention effects were found for reported and observed child prosocial behavior, observed child externalizing behavior, and observed negative parenting behavior. Out of 40 tested moderation effects (i.e., 8 Outcomes × 5 Moderators), only three significant moderation effects appeared. Thus, no systematic evidence emerged for moderation of IY effects. The present multi-informant trial demonstrated that many previously suggested moderators might not be as potent in differentiating BPT effects as once thought.

Underlying Mechanisms of Gene-Environment Interactions in Externalizing Behavior: A Systematic Review and Search for Theoretical Mechanisms.

Over the last decade, several candidate genes (i.e., MAOA, DRD4, DRD2, DAT1, 5-HTTLPR, and COMT) have been extensively studied as potential moderators of the detrimental effects of postnatal family adversity on child externalizing behaviors, such as aggression and conduct disorder. Many studies on such candidate gene by environment interactions (i.e., cG × E) have been published, and the first part of this paper offers a systematic review and integration of their findings (n = 53). The overview shows a set of heterogeneous findings. However, because of large differences between studies in terms of sample composition, conceptualizations, and power, it is difficult to determine if different findings indeed illustrate inconsistent cG × E findings or if findings are simply incomparable. In the second part of the paper, therefore, we argue that one way to help resolve this problem is the development of theory-driven a priori hypotheses on which biopsychosocial mechanisms might underlie cG × E. Such a theoretically based approach can help us specify our research strategies, create more comparable findings, and help us interpret different findings between studies. In accordance, we describe three possible explanatory mechanisms, based on extant literature on the concepts of (1) emotional reactivity, (2) reward sensitivity, and (3) punishment sensitivity. For each mechanism, we discuss the link between the putative mechanism and externalizing behaviors, the genetic polymorphism, and family adversity. Possible research strategies to test these mechanisms, and implications for interventions, are discussed.

5-HTTLPR Expression Outside the Skin: An Experimental Test of the Emotional Reactivity Hypothesis in Children.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing evidence that variation in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene SLC6A4 (i.e., the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism) moderates the impact of environmental stressors on child psychopathology. Emotional reactivity -the intensity of an individual's response to other's emotions- has been put forward as a possible mechanism underlying these gene-by-environment interactions (i.e., G×E). Compared to children homozygous for the L-allele (LL-genotypes), children carrying an S-allele (SS/SL-genotypes), specifically when they have been frequently exposed to negative emotions in the family environment, might be more emotionally reactive and therefore more susceptible to affective environmental stressors. However, the association between 5-HTTLPR and emotional reactivity in children has not yet been empirically tested. Therefore, the goal of this study was to test this association in a large-scale experiment. METHODS: Children (N = 521, 52.5% boys, Mage = 9.72 years) were genotyped and randomly assigned to happy, angry or neutral dynamic facial expressions and vocalizations. Motor and affective emotional reactivity were assessed through children's self-reported negative and positive affect (n = 460) and facial electromyography activity (i.e., fEMG: the zygomaticus or "smile" muscle and the corrugator or "frown" muscle, n = 403). Parents reported on their negative and positive parenting behaviors. RESULTS: Children mimicked and experienced the emotion they were exposed to. However, neither motor reactivity nor affective reactivity to these emotions depended on children's 5-HTTLPR genotype: SS/SL-genotypes did not manifest any stronger response to emotional stimuli than LL-genotypes. This finding remained the same when taking the broader family environment into account, controlling for kinship, age, gender and genetic ancestry, and when including a tri-allelic factor. CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence for an association between the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and children's emotional reactivity. This finding is important, in discounting one potential underlying endophenotype of G×E between the 5-HTTLPR and affective environmental stressors.

Relationships: empirical contribution. Understanding personality pathology in adolescents: the five factor model of personality and social information processing.

This study seeks to integrate two research traditions that lie at the base of the understanding of personality pathology in adolescents. The first research tradition refers to normal personality according to the Five Factor Model (FFM). The second tradition specifies the key feature of personality disorder as the capacity to mentalize, which can be reflected in Social Information Processing (SIP). In a clinical sample of 96 adolescents, the authors investigated response generation, coping strategy, and memories of past frustrating experiences as part of SIP, as mediator in the relationship between personality and personality pathology, and a possible moderating role of personality on the relationship between SIP and personality pathology. The hypothesized mediation, by which the effects of personality dimensions on personality pathology was expected to be mediated by SIP variables, was found only for the effect of Neuroticism, most specifically on BPD, which appeared to be mediated by memories the patients had about past frustrating conflict situations with peers. Some moderating effects of personality on the relationship between SIP variables and personality pathology were found, suggesting that high Agreeableness and sometimes low Neuroticism can buffer this relationship. These results suggest that personality dimensions and social cognitions both independently and together play a role in adolescents' personality pathology.

Facial emotion recognition in adolescents with personality pathology.

It has been argued that a heightened emotional sensitivity interferes with the cognitive processing of facial emotion recognition and may explain the intensified emotional reactions to external emotional stimuli of adults with personality pathology, such as borderline personality disorder (BPD). This study examines if and how deviations in facial emotion recognition also occur in adolescents with personality pathology. Forty-two adolescents with personality pathology, 111 healthy adolescents and 28 psychiatric adolescents without personality pathology completed the Emotion Recognition Task, measuring their accuracy and sensitivity in recognizing positive and negative emotion expressions presented in several, morphed, expression intensities. Adolescents with personality pathology showed an enhanced recognition accuracy of facial emotion expressions compared to healthy adolescents and clients with various Axis-I psychiatric diagnoses. They were also more sensitive to less intensive expressions of emotions than clients with various Axis-I psychiatric diagnoses, but not more than healthy adolescents. As has been shown in research on adults with BPD, adolescents with personality pathology show enhanced facial emotion recognition.

A trial of parent training for mothers being released from incarceration and their children.

Children of incarcerated mothers are considered at risk for disruptive behavior problems and later delinquency. Parenting may play a key role in this intergenerational transmission of delinquency. The present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the Incredible Years parent training, enhanced with home visits, for (formerly) incarcerated mothers to prevent disruptive behavior problems in their 2- to 10-year-old children, by means of a nationwide randomized controlled trial. Mothers of 133 children (M age = 76.91 months; 48.9% boys) were assigned to an intervention, consisting of group sessions and individual home visits, or a no-intervention control group. The intervention yielded significant effects on parenting and child behavior for maternal report. Marginally significant effects on child behavior were found for teacher report. The results show short-term effectiveness of parent training for the high-risk and hard-to-reach population of (formerly) incarcerated mothers and their children.

My Child Redeems My Broken Dreams: On Parents Transferring Their Unfulfilled Ambitions onto Their Child.

From the early days of psychology, theorists have observed that parents sometimes transfer their own unfulfilled ambitions onto their child. We propose that parents are especially inclined to do so when they see their child as part of themselves, more so than as a separate individual. When parents see their child as part of themselves, their child's achievements may easily come to function as a surrogate for parents' own unfulfilled ambitions. In the present experiment, 73 parents (89% women, M age = 43 years) were randomly assigned to reflect on either their own or others' unfulfilled ambitions. Results showed that, when faced with their own unfulfilled ambitions, parents who see their child as part of themselves want their child to fulfill their unfulfilled ambitions. This study provides the first experimental evidence to suggest that parents may desire their child to redeem their broken dreams.

Does socioeconomic status matter? A meta-analysis on parent training effectiveness for disruptive child behavior.

Disadvantaged family socioeconomic status (SES) is often assumed to diminish parent training program effectiveness. In examining effects of SES, influences of initial problem severity have been largely ignored. In the present meta-analysis, we examined (a) whether there is a differential influence of SES on parent training effectiveness at immediate posttreatment and at 1-year follow-up-controlling for levels of initial problem severity--and (b) whether SES interacts with initial problem severity in its effect on program effectiveness. Seventy-five studies on parent training program effectiveness to reduce disruptive child behavior were included. Separate analyses were conducted for immediate posttreatment and approximately 1-year follow-up assessments. Immediately posttreatment, disadvantaged samples benefited less from parent training, but only when they had low levels of initial problem severity. At follow-up, disadvantaged samples benefited less from parent training regardless of initial problem severity. Initial problem severity was a strong predictor of effect sizes both immediately posttreatment and at follow-up. Parent training programs are equally effective for disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged families immediately posttreatment, at least when initial problems are severe. Maintenance of treatment gain, however, seems harder for disadvantaged families, suggesting that more sustained family support may be needed.

Arousing "gentle passions" in young adolescents: Sustained experimental effects of value affirmations on prosocial feelings and behaviors.

When people reflect on their important values, they may become more attuned to the needs of others. Two longitudinal field experiments examined whether a subtle value-affirmation manipulation can initiate relatively enduring increases in young adolescents' prosocial feelings (Study 1; Mage = 12.9) and prosocial behaviors (Study 2; Mage = 12.9). Participants completed a brief writing exercise that affirmed the values they deemed either most important (value-affirmation group) or unimportant (control group). As predicted, the value affirmation, coupled with a booster affirmation 6 weeks later, caused increases in prosocial feelings and behaviors over the 3-month study period. Antisocial students who were value-affirmed showed especially strong increases in prosocial behavior. These results suggest that "gentle passions" can be aroused in youth by cost- and time-efficient means. The practical utility of value affirmations will need to be evaluated in future work.

The role of adolescents' morality and identity in volunteering. Age and gender differences in a process model.

The aim of this study was to explain adolescents' volunteering in terms of their morality and identity and to examine the moderation effect of gender and age in this process. Data were collected among 698 Dutch adolescents aged 12 to 20 (M = 15.19; SD = 1.43). Adolescents' moral reasoning was positively associated with understanding moral issues and thinking about public responsibility towards these issues. In turn, moral understanding, along with being personally committed to act upon moral issues, were positively associated with identity. Extending the number of identity contexts tended to be related to being more likely to volunteer and to more volunteering involvement. Adolescents' identity integration was not related to how likely they were to volunteer, and was negatively related to their volunteering involvement. Clearer effects were found when differentiating between adolescent gender and age groups. Future research could examine this process over time, along with additional factors that may further explain adolescents' volunteering, and examine their age and gender specific effects.

Explaining the paradoxical rejection-aggression link: the mediating effects of hostile intent attributions, anger, and decreases in state self-esteem on peer rejection-induced aggression in youth.

People are strongly motivated to feel accepted by others. Yet when faced with acute peer rejection they often aggress against the very peers they desire acceptance from, which may lead to further rejection. The present experiment tests three potential mediators of aggressive responses to acute peer rejection in the critical developmental stage of early adolescence. Participants (N=185, M(age)=11.5 years) completed personal profiles that were allegedly evaluated online by peers. After receiving negative or neutral peer feedback, participants could aggress against the same peers who had evaluated them. Rejected participants attributed more hostile intent to the peers, were angrier, showed a greater reduction in state self-esteem, and were more aggressive. Mediational analyses showed that hostile intent attributions mediated the acute peer rejection-aggression relationship, whereas increases in anger and decreases in state self-esteem did not. Thus, acute peer rejection evokes hostile intent attributions that, in turn, lead to aggressive reactions.

Evaluating expectations about negative emotional states of aggressive boys using Bayesian model selection.

Researchers often have expectations about the research outcomes in regard to inequality constraints between, e.g., group means. Consider the example of researchers who investigated the effects of inducing a negative emotional state in aggressive boys. It was expected that highly aggressive boys would, on average, score higher on aggressive responses toward other peers than moderately aggressive boys, who would in turn score higher than nonaggressive boys. In most cases, null hypothesis testing is used to evaluate such hypotheses. We show, however, that hypotheses formulated using inequality constraints between the group means are generally not evaluated properly. The wrong hypotheses are tested, i.e.. the null hypothesis that group means are equal. In this article, we propose an innovative solution to these above-mentioned issues using Bayesian model selection, which we illustrate using a case study.