Solar photo-Fenton treatment of microcystin-LR in aqueous environment: Transformation products and toxicity in different water matrices.

Transformation products and toxicity patterns of microcystin-LR (MC-LR), a common cyanotoxin in freshwaters, during degradation by solar photo-Fenton process were studied in the absence and presence of two major water components, namely fulvic acid and alkalinity. The transformation products m/z 795, 835, 515/1030 and 532 can be formed through attack of OH on the conjugated carbon double bonds of Adda. Transformation products with m/z 1010, 966 and 513 can be generated through the attack of OH on the methoxy group of Adda. The transformation products m/z 783, 508 and 1012 can be originated from the attack of OH on the cyclic structure of MC-LR. Transformation products (m/z 522, 1028, 1012, 1046 and 514) formed after hydroxylation of the aromatic ring with OH were also identified in this study. The toxicity study revealed that fulvic acid and alkalinity strongly influence the toxicity profiles of solar photo-Fenton treated MC-LR. Fulvic acid enhanced the detoxification whereas low level total alkalinity (1.8 mg L-1 CaCO3) inhibited the detoxification of MC-LR by solar photo-Fenton process as assessed by protein phosphatase-1 (PP-1) inhibition assay. This work provides insights on the utility of solar photo-Fenton destruction of MC-LR in water based on transformation products and toxicity data.

Use of Selected Scavengers for the Determination of NF-TiO2 Reactive Oxygen Species during the Degradation of Microcystin-LR under Visible Light Irradiation.

Although UV-induced TiO2 photocatalysis involves the generation of several reactive oxygen species (ROS), the formation of hydroxyl radicals are generally associated with the degradation of persistent organic contaminants in water. In this study, a variety of radical scavengers were employed to discriminate the roles of different ROS during visible light activated (VLA) photocatalysis using nitrogen and fluorine doped TiO2 (NF-TiO2) in the degradation of the hepatotoxin, microcystin-LR (MC-LR) in water. The addition of hydroxyl radical scavengers, methanol and tert-butyl alcohol to the reaction mixture resulted in negligible inhibition of VLA NF-TiO2 photocatalytic degradation of MCLR at pH 3.0 and only partial inhibition at pH 5.7. While hydroxyl radicals generally play the primary role in UV TiO2 photocatalysis, the minimal influence of MeOH and t-BuOH on the degradation process under these experimental conditions indicates hydroxyl radicals (•OH) do not play the primary role in VLA NF-TiO2 photocatalysis. However, strong inhibition was observed in VLA NF-TiO2 photocatalytic degradation of MC-LR in the presence of superoxide dismutase, benzoquinone and catalase at pH 3.0 and 5.7 indicating O2•- and H2O2 play critical roles in the degradation process. Similar degradation rates were observed in the presence of singlet oxygen scavenger, deuterium oxide, which enhances singlet oxygen mediated processes further suggesting singlet oxygen does not play a key role in the degradation of MCLR in these system. Formic acid and cupric nitrate were added to probe the roles of the valence band holes and conduction band electrons, respectively. Under UV+vis light irradiation, almost complete inhibition of MC-LR removal is observed with NF-TiO2 in the presence of •OH scavengers at pH 5.7. These results demonstrate that solution pH plays a major role in the formation and reactivities of ROS during VLA NF-TiO2 photocatalysis. The adsorption strength of the scavengers and MCLR onto NF-TiO2 as well as the speciation of the ROS as a function of pH need to be carefully considered since they also play a key role in the efficiency of the process. These results indicate the reduction of molecular oxygen by photo-generated electrons rather than hydroxyl radicals produced by oxidative reactions of photo-generated holes play a key role in the of VLA NF-TiO2 photocatalytic degradation of MC-LR.

Identification of Microcystis aeruginosa Peptides Responsible for Allergic Sensitization and Characterization of Functional Interactions between Cyanobacterial Toxins and Immunogenic Peptides.

BACKGROUND: The cyanobacterium species Microcystis aeruginosa produces microcystin and an array of diverse metabolites believed responsible for their toxicity and/or immunogenicity. Previously, chronic rhinitis patients were demonstrated to elicit a specific IgE response to nontoxic strains of M. aeruginosa by skin-prick testing, indicating that cyanobacteria allergenicity resides in a non-toxin-producing component of the organism. OBJECTIVES: We sought to identify and characterize M. aeruginosa peptide(s) responsible for allergic sensitization in susceptible individuals, and we investigated the functional interactions between cyanobacterial toxins and their coexpressed immunogenic peptides. METHODS: Sera from patients and extracts from M. aeruginosa toxic [MC(+)] and nontoxic [MC(-)] strains were used to test IgE-specific reactivity by direct and indirect ELISAs; 2D gel electrophoresis, followed by immunoblots and mass spectrometry (MS), was performed to identify the relevant sensitizing peptides. Cytotoxicity and mediator release assays were performed using the MC(+) and MC(-) lysates. RESULTS: We found specific IgE to be increased more in response to the MC(-) strain than the MC(+) strain. This response was inhibited by preincubation of MC(-) lysate with increasing concentrations of microcystin. MS revealed that phycocyanin and the core-membrane linker peptide are the responsible allergens, and MC(-) extracts containing these proteins induced ß-hexosaminidase release in rat basophil leukemia cells. CONCLUSIONS: Phycobiliprotein complexes in M. aeruginosa have been identified as the relevant sensitizing proteins. Our finding that allergenicity is inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by microcystin toxin suggests that further investigation is warranted to understand the interplay between immunogenicity and toxicity of cyanobacteria under diverse environmental conditions. CITATION: Geh EN, Ghosh D, McKell M, de la Cruz AA, Stelma G, Bernstein JA. 2015. Identification of Microcystis aeruginosa peptides responsible for allergic sensitization and characterization of functional interactions between cyanobacterial toxins and immunogenic peptides. Environ Health Perspect 123:1159-1166; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1409065.

Destruction of microcystins (cyanotoxins) by UV-254 nm-based direct photolysis and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs): influence of variable amino acids on the degradation kinetics and reaction mechanisms.

Hepatotoxic microcystins (MCs) are the most frequently detected group of cyanobacterial toxins. This study investigated the degradation of common MC variants in water, MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR and MC-LA, by UV-254 nm-based processes, UV only, UV/H2O2, UV/S2O8(2-) and UV/HSO5(-). Limited direct photolysis of MCs was observed, while the addition of an oxidant significantly improved the degradation efficiency with an order of UV/S2O8(2-) > UV/HSO5(-) > UV/H2O2 at the same initial molar concentration of the oxidant. The removal of MC-LR by UV/H2O2 appeared to be faster than another cyanotoxin, cylindrospermopsin, at either the same initial molar concentration or the same initial organic carbon concentration of the toxin. It suggested a faster reaction of MC-LR with hydroxyl radical, which was further supported by the determined second-order rate constant of MCs with hydroxyl radical. Both isomerization and photohydration byproducts were observed in UV only process for all four MCs; while in UV/H2O2, hydroxylation and diene-Adda double bond cleavage byproducts were detected. The presence of a tyrosine in the structure of MC-YR significantly promoted the formation of monohydroxylation byproduct m/z 1061; while the presence of a second arginine in MC-RR led to the elimination of a guanidine group and the absence of double bond cleavage byproducts. It was therefore demonstrated in this study that the variable amino acids in the structure of MCs influenced not only the degradation kinetics but also the preferable reaction mechanisms.

Kinetics and mechanisms of cylindrospermopsin destruction by sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation processes.

Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a potent cyanobacterial toxin frequently found in water bodies worldwide raising concerns over the safety of drinking and recreational waters. A number of technologies have been investigated to remove and/or degrade cyanotoxins with advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) being among the most promising and effective for water detoxification. In this study, the degradation of CYN by sulfate radical-based UV-254 nm-AOPs was evaluated. The UV/S2O8(2-) (UV/peroxydisulfate) was more efficient than UV/HSO5(-) (UV/peroxysulfate) and UV/H2O2 (UV/hydrogen peroxide) processes when natural water samples were used as reaction matrices. The observed UV fluence based pseudo-first-order rate constants followed the expected order of radical quantum yields. The presence of 200 µM natural organic matter (NOM) as carbon slightly inhibited the destruction of CYN; 1.24 mg L(-1)NO3(-) (nitrate) had no significant influence on the removal efficiency and 50 µg L(-1) Fe(2+) [iron (2+)] or Cu(2+) [copper (2+)] improved the performance of UV/S2O8(2-). The addition of tert-butyl alcohol (t-BuOH; hydroxyl radical scavenger) in the reaction yielded byproducts that indicated specific sites in CYN preferentially attacked by sulfate radicals (SRs). The predominant CYN degradation byproduct was P448 consistent with fragmentation of the C5C6 bond of the uracil ring. The subsequent formation of P420 and P392 through a stepwise loss of carbonyl group(s) further supported the fragmentation pathway at C5C6. The byproduct P432 was identified exclusively as mono-hydroxylation of CYN at tricyclic guanidine ring, whereas P414 was detected as dehydrogenation at the tricyclic ring. The elimination of sulfate group and the opening of tricyclic ring were also observed. The possible degradation pathways of CYN by SR-AOP were presented.

Degradation mechanism of cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin by hydroxyl radicals in homogeneous UV/H2O2 process.

The degradation of cylindrospermopsin (CYN), a widely distributed and highly toxic cyanobacterial toxin (cyanotoxin), remains poorly elucidated. In this study, the mechanism of CYN destruction by UV-254 nm/H2O2 advanced oxidation process (AOP) was investigated by mass spectrometry. Various byproducts identified indicated three common reaction pathways: hydroxyl addition (+16 Da), alcoholic oxidation or dehydrogenation (-2 Da), and elimination of sulfate (-80 Da). The initiation of the degradation was observed at the hydroxymethyl uracil and tricyclic guanidine groups; uracil moiety cleavage/fragmentation and further ring-opening of the alkaloid were also noted at an extended reaction time or higher UV fluence. The degradation rates of CYN decreased and less byproducts (species) were detected using natural water matrices; however, CYN was effectively eliminated under extended UV irradiation. This study demonstrates the efficiency of CYN degradation and provides a better understanding of the mechanism of CYN degradation by hydroxyl radical, a reactive oxygen species that can be generated by most AOPs and is present in natural water environment.

A review on cylindrospermopsin: the global occurrence, detection, toxicity and degradation of a potent cyanotoxin.

Cylindrospermopsin is an important cyanobacterial toxin found in water bodies worldwide. The ever-increasing and global occurrence of massive and prolonged blooms of cylindrospermopsin-producing cyanobacteria poses a potential threat to both human and ecosystem health. Its toxicity is associated with metabolic activation and may involve mechanisms that adversely affect a wide variety of targets in an organism. Cylindrospermopsin has been shown to be cytotoxic, dermatotoxic, genotoxic, hepatotoxic in vivo, developmentally toxic, and may be carcinogenic. Human exposure may occur through drinking water, during recreational activities and by consuming foods in which the toxin may have bioaccumulated. Drinking water shortages of sufficient quality coupled with growing human pressures and climate variability and change necessitate an integrated and sustainable water management program. This review presents an overview of the importance of cylindrospermopsin, its detection, toxicity, worldwide distribution, and lastly, its chemical and biological degradation and removal by natural processes and drinking water treatment processes.

Influence of air quality on the composition of microbial pathogens in fresh rainwater.

In this study, the microbiological quality of fresh rainwater was assessed from 50 rain events under tropical weather conditions for a year. The levels of four major opportunistic waterborne pathogens, namely, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Aeromonas hydrophila, in rainwater samples were quantified by using a robust and sensitive quantitative PCR (qPCR) method. Of the 50 rainwater samples, 25 were found to be positive for at least one pathogen: 21 for E. coli, 16 for P. aeruginosa, 6 for K. pneumoniae, and 1 for A. hydrophila. In addition to the microbiological assessment of rainwater samples, we also studied the influence of prevailing air quality on the microbial quality of rainwater over the sampling period. A significant change in the diversity and relative abundance of the basic microbial indicator organisms in rainwater was observed during a major regional air pollution episode in Southeast Asia due to biomass-burning emissions.

Efficient removal of microcystin-LR by UV-C/H2O2 in synthetic and natural water samples.

The destruction of the commonly found cyanobacterial toxin, microcystin-LR (MC-LR), in surface waters by UV-C/H(2)O(2) advanced oxidation process (AOP) was studied. Experiments were carried out in a bench scale photochemical apparatus with low pressure mercury vapor germicidal lamps emitting at 253.7 nm. The degradation of MC-LR was a function of UV fluence. A 93.9% removal with an initial MC-LR concentration of 1 µM was achieved with a UV fluence of 80 mJ/cm(2) and an initial H(2)O(2) concentration of 882 µM. When increasing the concentration of MC-LR only, the UV fluence-based pseudo-first order reaction rate constant generally decreased, which was probably due to the competition between by-products and MC-LR for hydroxyl radicals. An increase in H(2)O(2) concentration led to higher removal efficiency; however, the effect of HO scavenging by H(2)O(2) became significant for high H(2)O(2) concentrations. The impact of water quality parameters, such as pH, alkalinity and the presence of natural organic matter (NOM), was also studied. Field water samples from Lake Erie, Michigan and St. Johns River, Florida were employed to evaluate the potential application of this process for the degradation of MC-LR. Results showed that the presence of both alkalinity (as 89.6-117.8 mg CaCO(3)/L) and NOM (as ∼2 to ∼9.5 mg/L TOC) contributed to a significant decrease in the destruction rate of MC-LR. However, a final concentration of MC-LR bellow the guideline value of 1 µg/L was still achievable under current experimental conditions when an initial MC-LR concentration of 2.5 µg/L was spiked into those real water samples.

Biochemical response of diverse organs in adult Danio rerio (zebrafish) exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of microcystin-LR and microcystin-RR: a balneation study.

The present study was carried out to examine the dose-response of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and microcystin-RR (MC-RR) toxicity in adult Danio rerio (zebrafish) under balneation conditions at various time points. The differential responses of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR), and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) as biomarkers were assessed for oxygen mediated toxicity in liver, gills, intestine and brain tissues of zebrafish exposed to dissolved MC-LR and MC-RR (0.1-10.0 µgl(-1)). To investigate the time related response of biomarkers, fish were sampled after 4, 7 and 15 days of exposure. Responses varied (i) between MC-LR and MC-RR (for certain groups), (ii) for different enzymes at all time points, and (iii) for different tissues. In general, most of the enzymes followed a bell shaped curve, with an abrupt increase in activity at a particular concentration. It was observed that upon exposure to MC-LR and MC-RR, some enzymes showed an adaptive response after the first time point wherein the enzyme activity increased in some tissues. The increase in enzyme activity is suggestive of their cellular and metabolic adaptations to the continued stress and toxin exposure. Enzyme activities in general increased at lower concentrations (≤ 5.0 µgl(-1)) and decreased at higher concentrations (≥ 5.0 µgl(-1)). An abrupt change in enzyme activities was observed at a particular concentration in all the tissue enzymes. For GPx and GR, there was a differential response in the case of fish exposed to MC-LR and MC-RR, which could be due to the difference in toxicity potentials of these cyanotoxins. In general, initial stress conditions were observed in most of the tissue enzymes following the exposure to microcystins (MCs). This observation suggests that MCs found in trace levels are likely to have deleterious effects on aquatic organisms and can trigger a variety of biochemical responses depending on their specific toxicity.

Effects of water parameters on the degradation of microcystin-LR under visible light-activated TiO2 photocatalyst.

A study was performed to determine the effect of pH, alkalinity, natural organic matter (NOM) and dissolved oxygen in the performance of nitrogen and fluorine doped TiO(2) (NF-TiO(2)) for the degradation of hepatotoxin microcystin-LR (MC-LR) in synthetic and natural water under visible light irradiation. The initial degradation rate of MC-LR was fastest under acidic conditions (3.50 ± 0.02 × 10(-3) µM min(-1) at pH 3.0) and decreased to 2.29 ± 0.07 × 10(-3) and 0.54 ± 0.02 × 10(-3) µM min(-1) at pH 5.7 and 7.1, respectively. Attractive forces between the opposite charged MC-LR and NF-TiO(2) are likely responsible for the enhancement in the photocatalytic decomposition of MC-LR resulting from increased interfacial adsorption. For carbonate buffered solutions, the photocatalytic activity of NF-TiO(2) was reduced when increasing the carbonate concentration up to 150 mg CaCO(3) L(-1). The scavenging of radical species by the bicarbonate ion at pH 7.1 is discussed. In the presence of NOM, the degradation rates decreased as pH and initial concentration of the NOM increased. The inhibition was higher with fulvic acid than humic acid under alkaline conditions. Oxygenated solution yields higher NF-TiO(2) photocatalytic degradation of MC-LR compared to nitrogen sparged solution at pH 5.7. The involvement of specific reactive oxygen species implicated in the photodegradation is proposed. Finally, no significant degradation is observed with various natural waters spiked with MC-LR under visible light (λ > 420 nm) but high removal was achieved with simulated solar light. This study provides a better understanding of the interactions and photocatalytic processes initiated by NF-TiO(2) under visible and solar light. The results indicate solar photocatalytic oxidation is a promising technology for the treatment of water contaminated with cyanotoxins.

Can we effectively degrade microcystins?--Implications on human health.

Microcystins are cyclic heptapeptide toxins produced by a number of genera of cyanobacteria. They are ubiquitous in bodies of water worldwide and pose significant hazard to human, plant, and animal health. Microcystins are primarily hepatotoxins known to inhibit serine-threonine phosphatases leading to the disruption of cascade of events important in the regulation and control of cellular processes. Covalent binding of microcystins with phosphatases is thought to be responsible for the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of microcystins. In addition, microcystins can trigger oxidative stress in cells resulting in necrosis or apoptosis. Their cyclic structure and novel amino acids enhance their stability and persistence in the environment. Humans are primarily exposed to microcystins via drinking water consumption and accidental ingestion of recreational water. Recreational exposure by skin contact or inhalation to microcystins is now recognized to cause a wide range of acute illnesses which can be life-threatening. Microcystins are primarily degraded by microorganisms in the environment, while sunlight can cause the isomerization of the double bonds and hydroxylation in the presence of pigments. Attempts to utilize these organisms in sand and membrane filters to treat water contaminated with microcystins showed complete removal and detoxification. Conventional water treatment processes may not fully eliminate microcystins when there are high levels of organic compounds especially during harmful bloom events. Combination of conventional and advanced oxidation technologies can potentially remove 100% of microcystins in water even in turbid conditions. This review covers selected treatment technologies to degrade microcystins in water.

Intermediates and reaction pathways from the degradation of microcystin-LR with sulfate radicals.

Degradation of the cyanotoxin microcystin-LR (m/z 995.5) using sulfate radical-based advanced oxidation technologies (AOTs) and identification of reaction intermediates formed during treatment were investigated in this study. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study on the degradation and identification of reaction intermediates for any cyanotoxin with SO(4)(•-). Tandem mass spectrometry designated the formation of nine (as m/z) reaction intermediates with four of them (m/z 1011.5, 1027.5, 1029.5, and 1045.5) having multiple peaks in the TIC chromatogram. New peaks that were not observed with hydroxyl radical formed during photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) have been detected such as m/z 1045.5. The initially formed intermediates involved the oxidation of the unsaturated bonds of MC-LR especially the diene bonds located on the chain of the Adda amino acid. Subsequent intermediates implicated the oxidative cleavage of small functional groups (i.e., -COOH), up to the complete removal of the Adda chain. The electrophilic character of SO(4)(•-) is proven by the multihydroxylation of the aromatic ring. Toward the end of treatment, simultaneous oxidation of the Adda chain and the cyclic structure occurred without the formation of linear products.

Radiolysis studies on the destruction of microcystin-LR in aqueous solution by hydroxyl radicals.

In this study, steady-state and time-resolved radiolysis methods were used to determine the primary reaction pathways and kinetic parameters for the reactions of hydroxyl radical with microcystin-LR (MC-LR). The fundamental kinetic data is critical for the accurate evaluation of hydroxyl-radical based technologies for the destruction of this problematic class of cyanotoxins. The bimolecular rate constant for the reaction of hydroxyl radical with MC-LR is 2.3 (+/-0.1) x 10(10) M(-1)s(-1) based on time-resolved competition kinetics with SCN-at low conversions using pulsed radiolysis experiments. The reaction of hydroxyl radical with MC-LR can occur via a number of competing reaction pathways, including addition to the benzene ring and diene and abstraction of aliphatic hydrogen atoms. LC-MS analyses indicate the major products from the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with MC-LR involve addition of hydroxyl radical to the benzene ring and diene moieties of the Adda side chain. Transient absorption spectroscopy monitored between 260-500 nm, following pulsed hydroxyl radical generation, indicate the formation of a transient species with absorption maxima at 270 and 310 nm. The absorption maxima and lifetime of the transient species are characteristic of hydroxycyclohexadienyl radicals resulting from the addition of hydroxyl radical to the benzene ring. The rate constant for the formation of hydroxycyclohexadienyl radical is 1.0 (+/-0.1) x 10(10) M(-1)s(-1) accounting for approximately 40% of the primary reaction pathways. Representative rate constants and partitioning of hydroxyl radical reactions were assessed based on the reactivities of surrogate substrates and individual amino acids. Summation of the individual reactivities of hydroxyl radical at the different reactive sites (amino acids) leads to a rate constant of 2.1 x 10(10) M(-1) s(-1) in good agreementwith the rate constant determined in our studies. The relative magnitude of the rate constants for the reactions of hydroxyl radical with the individual amino acids and appropriate surrogates, suggest 60-70% reactions of hydroxyl radical occur at the benzene and diene functional groups of the Adda moiety.

LC/MS/MS structure elucidation of reaction intermediates formed during the TiO(2) photocatalysis of microcystin-LR.

Microcystin-LR (MC-LR), a cyanotoxin and emerging drinking water contaminant, was treated with TiO(2) photocatalysts immobilized on stainless steel plates as an alternative to nanoparticles in slurry. The reaction intermediates of MC-LR were identified with mass spectrometry (MS) at pH of Milli-Q water (pH(sq)=5.7). Eleven new [M+H](+) were observed in the liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS) chromatogram with some of them giving multiple peaks. Most of these reaction intermediates have not been reported from previous studies employing TiO(2) nanoparticles at acidic conditions (pH=4.0). Investigating the effects of pH (for 3.0

Unveiling new degradation intermediates/pathways from the photocatalytic degradation of microcystin-LR.

Mass spectrometry was utilized for structural identification of the intermediates formed during the photocatalytic degradation of the cyanotoxin, microcystin-LR with immobilized TiO2 photocatalysts at neutral pH. Most of the intermediates reported herein have not been found in prior studies. Results indicate that MC-LR degradation is initiated at four sites of the toxin; three on the Adda amino acid (aromatic ring, methoxy group, and conjugated double bonds) and one on the cyclic structure (Mdha amino acid). Several intermediates gave multiple peaks in the TIC (m/z = 1011.5, 1029.5, 1063.5), which were deduced to be geometrical or constitutional isomers. This is the first study that reports the hydroxylation of the aromatic ring and the demethoxylation of MC-LR with TiO2 photocatalysis. The most targeted site was the conjugated diene bonds because of their location in the MC-LR structure. Isomerization at the C4-C5 and C6-C7 of the diene bond of the Adda chain was a direct result of hydroxyl radical addition/substitution. Based on the above, we concluded that oxidation and isomerization of the diene bonds of MC-LR occurred simultaneously. Other steps included hydroxyl substitution, further oxidation, and bond cleavage. As the reaction time progressed, simultaneous oxidation of the Adda chain and the cyclic structure occurred.

Mesoporous nitrogen-doped TiO2 for the photocatalytic destruction of the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin-LR under visible light irradiation.

The presence of the harmful cyanobacterial toxins in water resources worldwide drives the development of an innovative and practical water treatment technology with great urgency. This study deals with two important aspects: the fabrication of mesoporous nitrogen-doped TiO2 (N-TiO2) photocatalysts and their environmental application for the destruction of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) under visible light. In a nanotechnological sol-gel synthesis method, a nitrogen-containing surfactant (dodecylammonium chloride) was introduced as a pore templating material for tailor-designing the structural properties of TiO2 and as a nitrogen dopant for its visible light response. The resulting N-TiO2 exhibited significantly enhanced structural properties including 2-8 nm mesoporous structure (porosity 44%) and high surface area of 150 m2/g. Red shift in light absorbance up to 468 nm, 0.9 eV lower binding energy of electrons in Ti 2p state, and reduced interplanar distance of crystal lattices proved nitrogen doping in the TiO2 lattice. Due to its narrow band gap at 2.65 eV, N-TiO2 efficiently degraded MC-LR under visible spectrum above 420 nm. Acidic condition (pH 3.5) was more favorable for the adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of MC-LR on N-TiO2 due to electrostatic attraction forces between negatively charged MC-LR and +6.5 mV charged N-TiO2. Even under UV light, MC-LR was decomposed 3-4 times faster using N-TiO2 than control TiO2. The degradation pathways and reaction intermediates of MC-LR were not directly related to the energy source for TiO2 activation (UV and visible) and nature of TiO2 (neat and nitrogen-doped). This study implies a strong possibility for the in situ photocatalytic remediation of contaminated water with cyanobacterial toxins and other toxic compounds using solar light, a sustainable source of energy.

Ultrasonically induced degradation of microcystin-LR and -RR: identification of products, effect of pH, formation and destruction of peroxides.

Microcystins (MCs) are a family of toxic peptides produced by a number of cyanobacteria commonly found in lakes, water reservoirs, and recreational facilities. The increased eutrophication of freshwater supplies has led to an increase in the incidence of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms and concerns over the public health implications of these toxins in the water supply. Conventional water treatment methods are ineffective at removing low concentrations of cyanotoxins, hence specialized treatment is usually recommended for treatment of contaminated water. In this study, the products of ultrasonically induced degradation of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and microcystin-RR (MC-RR) were analyzed by LC-MS to elucidate the probable pathways of degradation of these toxins. Results indicate preliminary products of sonolysis of MCs are due to the hydroxyl radical attack on the benzene ring and diene of the Adda peptide residue and cleavage of the Mdha-Ala peptide bond. The effect of pH on the toxin degradation was evaluated since the pH of the solution changes upon ultrasonic irradiation and varies with the water quality of treatable waters. The initial rate of MC-LR degradation is greater at acidic pH and coincides with the change in hydrophobic character of MC-LR as a function of pH. Hydrogen and organic peroxides are formed during ultrasonic irradiation, but can be eliminated by adding Fe(II). The addition of Fe(II) also accelerates the degradation of MC-LR, presumably by promoting the formation of hydroxyl radicals via conversion of ultrasonically produced H2O2. These findings suggest that sonolysis can effectively degrade MCs in drinking water.