Treatment of congenital thrombocytopenia and decreased collagen reactivity in G6b-B-deficient mice.

Mice lacking the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motif-containing co-inhibitory receptor G6b-B (Mpig6b, G6b knockout, KO) are born with a complex megakaryocyte (MK) per platelet phenotype, characterized by severe macrothrombocytopenia, expansion of the MK population, and focal myelofibrosis in the bone marrow and spleen. Platelets are almost completely devoid of the glycoprotein VI (GPVI)-FcRγ-chain collagen receptor complex, have reduced collagen integrin α2ß1, elevated Syk tyrosine kinase activity, and a subset has increased surface immunoglobulins. A similar phenotype was recently reported in patients with null and loss-of-function mutations in MPIG6B. To better understand the cause and treatment of this pathology, we used pharmacological- and genetic-based approaches to rescue platelet counts and function in G6b KO mice. Intravenous immunoglobulin resulted in a transient partial recovery of platelet counts, whereas immune deficiency did not affect platelet counts or receptor expression in G6b KO mice. Syk loss-of-function (R41A) rescued macrothrombocytopenia, GPVI and α2ß1 expression in G6b KO mice, whereas treatment with the Syk kinase inhibitor BI1002494 partially rescued platelet count but had no effect on GPVI and α2ß1 expression or bleeding. The Src family kinase inhibitor dasatinib was not beneficial in G6b KO mice. In contrast, treatment with the thrombopoietin mimetic romiplostim rescued thrombocytopenia, GPVI expression, and platelet reactivity to collagen, suggesting that it may be a promising therapeutic option for patients lacking functional G6b-B. Intriguingly, GPVI and α2ß1 expression were significantly downregulated in romiplostim-treated wild-type mice, whereas GPVI was upregulated in romiplostim-treated G6b KO mice, suggesting a cell intrinsic feedback mechanism that autoregulates platelet reactivity depending on physiological needs.

Megakaryocytes form linear podosomes devoid of digestive properties to remodel medullar matrix.

Bone marrow megakaryocytes (MKs) undergo a maturation involving contacts with the microenvironment before extending proplatelets through sinusoids to deliver platelets in the bloodstream. We demonstrated that MKs assemble linear F-actin-enriched podosomes on collagen I fibers. Microscopy analysis evidenced an inverse correlation between the number of dot-like versus linear podosomes over time. Confocal videomicroscopy confirmed that they derived from each-other. This dynamics was dependent on myosin IIA. Importantly, MKs progenitors expressed the Tks4/5 adaptors, displayed a strong gelatinolytic ability and did not form linear podosomes. While maturing, MKs lost Tks expression together with digestive ability. However, those MKs were still able to remodel the matrix by exerting traction on collagen I fibers through a collaboration between GPVI, ß1 integrin and linear podosomes. Our data demonstrated that a change in structure and composition of podosomes accounted for the shift of function during megakaryopoiesis. These data highlight the fact that members of the invadosome family could correspond to different maturation status of the same entity, to adapt to functional responses required by differentiation stages of the cell that bears them.

Platelet FcγRIIA-induced serotonin release exacerbates the severity of transfusion-related acute lung injury in mice.

Transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) remains a major cause of transfusion-related fatalities. The mechanism of human antibody-mediated TRALI, especially the involvement of the Fcγ receptors, is not clearly established. Contrary to mice, human platelets are unique in their expression of the FcγRIIA/CD32A receptor, suggesting that our understanding of the pathogenesis of antibody-mediated TRALI is partial, as the current murine models incompletely recapitulate the human immunology. We evaluated the role of FcγRIIA/CD32A in TRALI using a humanized mouse model expressing the FcγRIIA/CD32A receptor. When challenged with a recombinant chimeric human immunoglobulin G1/mouse anti-major histocompatibility complex class I monoclonal antibody, these mice exhibited exacerbated alveolar edema and higher mortality compared with wild-type (WT) mice. Unlike in WT mice, monocytes/macrophages in CD32A+ mice were accessory for TRALI initiation, indicating the decisive contribution of another cell type. Platelet activation was dramatically increased in CD32A+ animals, resulting in their increased consumption and massive release of their granule contents. Platelet depletion prevented the exacerbation of TRALI in CD32A+ mice but did not affect TRALI in WT animals. By blocking platelet serotonin uptake with fluoxetine, we showed that the severity of TRALI in CD32A+ mice resulted from the serotonin released by the activated platelets. Furthermore, inhibition of 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A serotonin receptor with sarpogrelate, before or after the induction of TRALI, abolished the aggravation of lung edema in CD32A+ mice. Our findings show that platelet FcγRIIA/CD32A activation exacerbates antibody-mediated TRALI and provide a rationale for designing prophylactic and therapeutic strategies targeting the serotonin pathway to attenuate TRALI in patients.

Leukodepletion Filters-Derived CD34+ Cells As a Cell Source to Study Megakaryocyte Differentiation and Platelet Formation.

The in vitro expansion and differentiation of human hematopoietic progenitors into megakaryocytes capable of elongating proplatelets and releasing platelets allows an in-depth study of the mechanisms underlying platelet biogenesis. Available culture protocols are mostly based on hematopoietic progenitors derived from bone marrow or cord blood raising a number of ethical, technical, and economic concerns. If there are already available protocols for obtaining CD34 cells from peripheral blood, this manuscript proposes a straightforward and optimized protocol for obtaining CD34+ cells from leukodepletion filters readily available in blood centers. These cells are isolated from leukodepletion filters used in the preparation of blood transfusion products, corresponding to eight blood donations. These filters are meant to be discarded. A detailed procedure to collect hematopoietic progenitors identified as CD34+ cells from these filters is described. The method to obtain mature megakaryocytes extending proplatelets while discussing their phenotypic evolution is also detailed. Finally, the protocol present a calibrated pipetting method, to efficiently release platelets that are morphologically and functionally similar to native ones. This protocol can serve as a basis for evaluating pharmacological compounds acting at various steps of the process to dissect the underlying mechanisms and approach the in vivo platelet yields.

Megakaryocytes use in vivo podosome-like structures working collectively to penetrate the endothelial barrier of bone marrow sinusoids.

BACKGROUND: Blood platelets are anucleate cell fragments that prevent bleeding and minimize blood vessel injury. They are formed from the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes located in the bone marrow. For successful platelet production, megakaryocyte fragments must pass through the sinusoid endothelial barrier by a cell biology process unique to these giant cells as compared with erythrocytes and leukocytes. Currently, the mechanisms by which megakaryocytes interact and progress through the endothelial cells are not understood, resulting in a significant gap in our knowledge of platelet production. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate how megakaryocytes interact and progress through the endothelial cells of mouse bone marrow sinusoids. METHODS: We used a combination of fluorescence, electron, and three-dimensional microscopy to characterize the cellular events between megakaryocytes and endothelial cells. RESULTS: We identified protrusive, F-actin-based podosome-like structures, called in vivo-MK podosomes, which initiate the formation of pores through endothelial cells. These structures present a collective and spatial organization through their interconnection via a contractile network of actomyosin, essential to regulate the endothelial openings. This ensures proper passage of megakaryocyte-derived processes into the blood circulation to promote thrombopoiesis. CONCLUSION: This study provides novel insight into the in vivo function of podosomes of megakaryocytes with critical importance to platelet production.

Cell surface expression of HLA I molecules as a marker of young platelets.

BACKGROUND: Accurate identification of the proportion of young platelets is important to distinguish peripheral thrombocytopenia from a deficit in platelet production. Young platelets are defined by their higher RNA content and are often assessed as thiazole orange bright (TObright ) by flow cytometry. In clinical practice, their proportion is estimated by automatic blood counter according to their greater RNA content, which identifies a so-called immature platelet fraction (IPF). However, the detected IPFs are not strictly identical to the young TObright platelet population observed by flow cytometry. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess the reliability of HLA I/major histocompatibility I (MHC I) cell surface expression as a marker of young platelets. METHODS: The HLA I/MHC I expression was evaluated by flow cytometry after costaining blood with TO and antibodies directed against HLA I/MHC I molecules. RESULTS: We found that platelets with a higher expression of plasma membrane-localized MHC I molecules displayed an increased TO staining and a higher content in ribosomal P-antigen. Transfusion experiments in mice showed that the number of MHC I molecules expressed on the cell surface of young murine platelets decreased during platelet aging, reaching basal levels within 24 h. Finally, we demonstrated that for patients with thrombocytopenias, the identification of young platelets is better assessed by the flow cytometric determination of the level of HLA I expression than by TO staining or the use of hematological blood counter. CONCLUSION: Overall, our results highlight the relevance of MHC I/HLA I expression as a valuable parameter to identify young platelets.

The ATP-gated P2X1 ion channel contributes to the severity of antibody-mediated Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury in mice.

The biological responses that control the development of Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury (TRALI), a serious post-transfusion respiratory syndrome, still need to be clarified. Since extracellular nucleotides and their P2 receptors participate in inflammatory processes as well as in cellular responses to stress, we investigated the role of the ATP-gated P2X1 cation channel in antibody-mediated TRALI. The effects of NF449, a selective P2X1 receptor (P2RX1) antagonist, were analyzed in a mouse two-hit model of TRALI. Mice were primed with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and 24 h later challenged by administrating an anti-MHC I antibody. The selective P2RX1 antagonist NF449 was administrated before the administration of LPS and/or the anti-MHC I antibody. When given before antibody administration, NF449 improved survival while maximal protection was achieved when NF449 was also administrated before the sensitization step. Under this later condition, protein contents in bronchoalveolar lavages were dramatically reduced. Cell depletion experiments indicated that monocytes/macrophages, but not neutrophils, contribute to this effect. In addition, the reduced lung periarteriolar interstitial edemas in NF449-treated mice suggested that P2RX1 from arteriolar smooth muscle cells could represent a target of NF449. Accordingly, inhibition of TRPC6, another cation channel expressed by smooth muscle cells, also reduced TRALI-associated pulmonary interstitial and alveolar edemas. These data strongly suggest that cation channels like P2RX1 or TRPC6 participate to TRALI pathological responses.

An essential role for α4A-tubulin in platelet biogenesis.

During platelet biogenesis, microtubules (MTs) are arranged into submembranous structures (the marginal band) that encircle the cell in a single plane. This unique MT array has no equivalent in any other mammalian cell, and the mechanisms responsible for this particular mode of assembly are not fully understood. One possibility is that platelet MTs are composed of a particular set of tubulin isotypes that carry specific posttranslational modifications. Although ß1-tubulin is known to be essential, no equivalent roles of α-tubulin isotypes in platelet formation or function have so far been reported. Here, we identify α4A-tubulin as a predominant α-tubulin isotype in platelets. Similar to ß1-tubulin, α4A-tubulin expression is up-regulated during the late stages of megakaryocyte differentiation. Missense mutations in the α4A-tubulin gene cause macrothrombocytopenia in mice and humans. Defects in α4A-tubulin lead to changes in tubulin tyrosination status of the platelet tubulin pool. Ultrastructural defects include reduced numbers and misarranged MT coils in the platelet marginal band. We further observed defects in megakaryocyte maturation and proplatelet formation in Tuba4a-mutant mice. We have, thus, discovered an α-tubulin isotype with specific and essential roles in platelet biogenesis.

Dual role of IL-21 in megakaryopoiesis and platelet homeostasis.

Gene profiling studies have indicated that in vitro differentiated human megakaryocytes express the receptor for IL-21 (IL-21R), an immunostimulatory cytokine associated with inflammatory disorders and currently under evaluation in cancer therapy. The aim of this study was to investigate whether IL-21 modulates megakaryopoiesis. We first checked the expression of IL-21 receptor on human bone marrow and in vitro differentiated megakaryocytes. We then investigated the effect of IL-21 on the in vitro differentiation of human blood CD34+ progenitors into megakaryocytes. Finally, we analyzed the consequences of hydrodynamic transfection-mediated transient expression of IL-21, on megakaryopoiesis and thrombopoiesis in mice. The IL-21Rα chain was expressed in human bone marrow megakaryocytes and was progressively induced during in vitro differentiation of human peripheral CD34+ progenitors, while the signal transducing γ chain was down-regulated. Consistently, the STAT3 phosphorylation induced by IL-21 diminished during the later stages of megakaryocytic differentiation. In vitro, IL-21 increased the number of colony-forming unit megakaryocytes generated from CD34+ cells and the number of megakaryocytes differentiated from CD34+ progenitors in a JAK3- and STAT3-dependent manner. Forced expression of IL-21 in mice increased the density of bi-potent megakaryocyte progenitors and bone marrow megakaryocytes, and the platelet generation, but increased platelet clearance with a consequent reduction in blood cell counts. Our work suggests that IL-21 regulates megakaryocyte development and platelet homeostasis. Thus, IL-21 may link immune responses to physiological or pathological platelet-dependent processes.

Time-Dependent Decay of mRNA and Ribosomal RNA during Platelet Aging and Its Correlation with Translation Activity.

Previous investigations have indicated that RNAs are mostly present in the minor population of the youngest platelets, whereas translation in platelets could be biologically important. To attempt to solve this paradox, we studied changes in the RNA content of reticulated platelets, i.e., young cells brightly stained by thiazole orange (TObright), a fluorescent probe for RNAs. We provoked in mice strong thrombocytopenia followed by dramatic thrombocytosis characterized by a short period with a vast majority of reticulated platelets. During thrombocytosis, the TObright platelet count rapidly reached a maximum, after which TOdim platelets accumulated, suggesting that most of the former were converted into the latter within 12 h. Experiments on platelets, freshly isolated or incubated ex vivo at 37°C, indicated that their "RNA content", here corresponding to the amounts of extracted RNA, and the percentage of TObright platelets were positively correlated. The "RNA Content" normalized to the number of platelets could be 20 to 40 fold higher when 80-90% of the cells were reticulated (20-40 fg/platelet), than when only 5-10% of control cells were TObright (less than 1fg/platelet). TObright platelets, incubated ex vivo at 37°C or transfused into mice, became TOdim within 24 h. Ex vivo at 37°C, platelets lost about half of their ribosomal and beta actin RNAs within 6 hours, and more than 98% of them after 24 hours. Accordingly, fluorescence in situ hybridization techniques confirmed the presence of beta actin mRNAs in most reticulated-enriched platelets, but detected them in only a minor subset of control platelets. In vitro, constitutive translation decreased considerably within less than 6 hours, questioning how protein synthesis in platelets, especially in non-reticulated ones, could have a biological function in vivo. Nevertheless, constitutive transient translation in young platelets under pathological conditions characterized by a dramatic increase in circulating reticulated platelets could deserve to be investigated.

The P2X1 receptor is required for neutrophil extravasation during lipopolysaccharide-induced lethal endotoxemia in mice.

Extracellular ATP is becoming increasingly recognized as an important regulator of inflammation. However, the known repertoire of P2 receptor subtypes responsible for the proinflammatory effects of ATP is sparse. We looked at whether the P2X1 receptor, an ATP-gated cation channel present on platelets, neutrophils, and macrophages, participates in the acute systemic inflammation provoked by LPS. Compared with wild-type (WT) mice, P2X1(-/-) mice displayed strongly diminished pathological responses, with dampened neutrophil accumulation in the lungs, less tissue damage, reduced activation of coagulation, and resistance to LPS-induced death. P2X1 receptor deficiency also was associated with a marked reduction in plasma levels of the main proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines induced by LPS. Interestingly, macrophages and neutrophils isolated from WT and P2X1(-/-) mice produced similar levels of proinflammatory cytokines when stimulated with LPS in vitro. Intravital microscopy revealed a defect in LPS-induced neutrophil emigration from cremaster venules into the tissues of P2X1(-/-) mice. Using adoptive transfer of immunofluorescently labeled neutrophils from WT and P2X1(-/-) mice into WT mice, we demonstrate that the absence of the P2X1 receptor on neutrophils was responsible for this defect. This study reveals a major role for the P2X1 receptor in LPS-induced lethal endotoxemia through its critical involvement in neutrophil emigration from venules.

Birbeck granule-like "organized smooth endoplasmic reticulum" resulting from the expression of a cytoplasmic YFP-tagged langerin.

Langerin is required for the biogenesis of Birbeck granules (BGs), the characteristic organelles of Langerhans cells. We previously used a Langerin-YFP fusion protein having a C-terminal luminal YFP tag to dynamically decipher the molecular and cellular processes which accompany the traffic of Langerin. In order to elucidate the interactions of Langerin with its trafficking effectors and their structural impact on the biogenesis of BGs, we generated a YFP-Langerin chimera with an N-terminal, cytosolic YFP tag. This latter fusion protein induced the formation of YFP-positive large puncta. Live cell imaging coupled to a fluorescence recovery after photobleaching approach showed that this coalescence of proteins in newly formed compartments was static. In contrast, the YFP-positive structures present in the pericentriolar region of cells expressing Langerin-YFP chimera, displayed fluorescent recovery characteristics compatible with active membrane exchanges. Using correlative light-electron microscopy we showed that the coalescent structures represented highly organized stacks of membranes with a pentalaminar architecture typical of BGs. Continuities between these organelles and the rough endoplasmic reticulum allowed us to identify the stacks of membranes as a form of "Organized Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum" (OSER), with distinct molecular and physiological properties. The involvement of homotypic interactions between cytoplasmic YFP molecules was demonstrated using an A206K variant of YFP, which restored most of the Langerin traffic and BG characteristics observed in Langerhans cells. Mutation of the carbohydrate recognition domain also blocked the formation of OSER. Hence, a "double-lock" mechanism governs the behavior of YFP-Langerin, where asymmetric homodimerization of the YFP tag and homotypic interactions between the lectin domains of Langerin molecules participate in its retention and the subsequent formation of BG-like OSER. These observations confirm that BG-like structures appear wherever Langerin accumulates and confirm that membrane trafficking effectors dictate their physiology and, illustrate the importance of molecular interactions in the architecture of intracellular membranes.

Chromatofocusing purification of CD1b-antigen complexes and their analysis by isoelectric focusing.

The presentation of lipid antigens to T cells is mediated by the CD1 proteins. Purified functional CD1/lipid complexes are valuable tools to investigate such immune processes. Here, we describe how these complexes can be prepared in vitro, how they can be purified by chromatofocusing and how to control their antigen-loading status by isoelectric focusing.

Lysosomal-associated transmembrane protein 5 (LAPTM5) is a molecular partner of CD1e.

The CD1e protein participates in the presentation of lipid antigens in dendritic cells. Its transmembrane precursor is transported to lysosomes where it is cleaved into an active soluble form. In the presence of bafilomycin, which inhibits vacuolar ATPase and consequently the acidification of endosomal compartments, CD1e associates with a 27 kD protein. In this work, we identified this molecular partner as LAPTM5. The latter protein and CD1e colocalize in trans-Golgi and late endosomal compartments. The quantity of LAPTM5/CD1e complexes increases when the cells are treated with bafilomycin, probably due to the protection of LAPTM5 from lysosomal proteases. Moreover, we could demonstrate that LAPTM5/CD1e association occurs under physiological conditions. Although LAPTM5 was previously shown to act as a platform recruiting ubiquitin ligases and facilitating the transport of receptors to lysosomes, we found no evidence that LATPM5 controls either CD1e ubiquitination or the generation of soluble lysosomal CD1e proteins. Notwithstanding these last observations, the interaction of LAPTM5 with CD1e and their colocalization in antigen processing compartments both suggest that LAPTM5 might influence the role of CD1e in the presentation of lipid antigens.

Deciphering the role of CD1e protein in mycobacterial phosphatidyl-myo-inositol mannosides (PIM) processing for presentation by CD1b to T lymphocytes.

Lipids are important antigens that induce T cell-mediated specific immune responses. They are presented to T lymphocytes by a specific class of MHC-I like proteins, termed CD1. The majority of the described CD1-presented mycobacterial antigens are presented by the CD1b isoform. We previously demonstrated that the stimulation of CD1b-restricted T cells by the hexamannosylated phosphatidyl-myo-inositol (PIM(6)), a family of mycobacterial antigens, requires a prior partial digestion of the antigen oligomannoside moiety by α-mannosidase and that CD1e is an accessory protein absolutely required for the generation of the lipid immunogenic form. Here, we show that CD1e behaves as a lipid transfer protein influencing lipid immunoediting and membrane transfer of PIM lipids. CD1e selectively assists the α-mannosidase-dependent digestion of PIM(6) species according to their degree of acylation. Moreover, CD1e transfers only diacylated PIM from donor to acceptor liposomes and also from membranes to CD1b. This study provides new insight into the molecular mechanisms by which CD1e contributes to lipid immunoediting and CD1-restricted presentation to T cells.

HLA-DQA2 and HLA-DQB2 genes are specifically expressed in human Langerhans cells and encode a new HLA class II molecule.

The precise role of human epidermal Langerhans cells (LCs) in immune response is highly controversial. While studying the gene expression profile of these cells, we were intrigued to identify the HLA-DQB2 gene as potentially expressed in LCs. Despite a strong evolutionary conservation of their sequences, the concomitant expression of the poorly polymorphic HLA-DQA2/HLA-DQB2 genes, paralogous to the HLA-DQA1/HLA-DQB1 genes, has never been detected in any cell type. We confirmed by RT-PCR that the HLA-DQA2 and -DQB2 genes are both expressed in LCs, but not in monocyte-derived dendritic cells, or in blood CD1c(+) or plasmacytoid dendritic cells. The presence of the HLA-DQß2 chain in LCs could be demonstrated by Western blotting, whereas immunofluorescence revealed its localization in early endosomes. As in the case of other HLA class II molecules, the HLA-DQα2 and -DQß2 chains formed heterodimers that had to associate with the invariant chain to reach endosomal compartments. HLA-DQα2/ß2 heterodimers were expressed at the cell surface, where they could mediate staphylococcal superantigen stimulation of T cells. Interestingly, HLA-DQα2 and HLA-DQß1 chains formed mixed heterodimers which efficiently left the endoplasmic reticulum. These observations strongly suggest that the poorly polymorphic HLA-DQA2 and -DQB2 genes should be considered to be of immunological importance. The HLA-DQα2/ß2 molecules could influence the complexity of the repertoire of Ags presented by LCs.

A Rab11A/myosin Vb/Rab11-FIP2 complex frames two late recycling steps of langerin from the ERC to the plasma membrane.

A large body of knowledge relating to the constitution of Rab GTPase/Rab effector complexes and their impact on both membrane domain organization and overall membrane trafficking has been built up in recent years. However in the context of the live cell there are still many questions that remain to be answered, such as where and when these complexes assemble and where they perform their primary function(s). We describe here the dynamic processes that take place in the final steps of the Rab11A dependent recycling pathway, in the context of the membrane platform constituted by Myosin Vb, Rab11A, and Rab11-FIP2. We first confirm that a series of previously reported observations obtained during the study of a number of trafficking cargoes also apply to langerin. Langerin is a cargo molecule that traffics through Rab11A-positive membrane domains of the endosomal recycling pathway. In order to explore the relative dynamics of this set of partners, we make extensive use of a combinatory approach of Live-FRET, fast FRAP video, fast confocal and TIRF microscopy modalities. Our data show that the Myosin Vb/Rab11A/Rab11-FIP2 platform is spatially involved in the regulation of langerin trafficking at two distinct sites within live cells, first at the sorting site in the endosomal recycling compartment (ERC) where transport vesicles are formed, and subsequently, in a strict time-defined order, at the very late stage of docking/tethering and fusion of these langerin recycling vesicles to the plasma membrane.

Structural reorganization of the antigen-binding groove of human CD1b for presentation of mycobacterial sulfoglycolipids.

The mechanisms permitting nonpolymorphic CD1 molecules to present lipid antigens that differ considerably in polar head and aliphatic tails remain elusive. It is also unclear why hydrophobic motifs in the aliphatic tails of some antigens, which presumably embed inside CD1 pockets, contribute to determinants for T-cell recognition. The 1.9-Å crystal structure of an active complex of CD1b and a mycobacterial diacylsulfoglycolipid presented here provides some clues. Upon antigen binding, endogenous spacers of CD1b, which consist of a mixture of diradylglycerols, moved considerably within the lipid-binding groove. Spacer displacement was accompanied by F' pocket closure and an extensive rearrangement of residues exposed to T-cell receptors. Such structural reorganization resulted in reduction of the A' pocket capacity and led to incomplete embedding of the methyl-ramified portion of the phthioceranoyl chain of the antigen, explaining why such hydrophobic motifs are critical for T-cell receptor recognition. Mutagenesis experiments supported the functional importance of the observed structural alterations for T-cell stimulation. Overall, our data delineate a complex molecular mechanism combining spacer repositioning and ligand-induced conformational changes that, together with pocket intricacy, endows CD1b with the required molecular plasticity to present a broad range of structurally diverse antigens.

Fine tuning by human CD1e of lipid-specific immune responses.

CD1e is a member of the CD1 family that participates in lipid antigen presentation without interacting with the T-cell receptor. It binds lipids in lysosomes and facilitates processing of complex glycolipids, thus promoting editing of lipid antigens. We find that CD1e may positively or negatively affect lipid presentation by CD1b, CD1c, and CD1d. This effect is caused by the capacity of CD1e to facilitate rapid formation of CD1-lipid complexes, as shown for CD1d, and also to accelerate their turnover. Similar results were obtained with antigen-presenting cells from CD1e transgenic mice in which lipid complexes are assembled more efficiently and show faster turnover than in WT antigen-presenting cells. These effects maximize and temporally narrow CD1-restricted responses, as shown by reactivity to Sphingomonas paucimobilis-derived lipid antigens. CD1e is therefore an important modulator of both group 1 and group 2 CD1-restricted responses influencing the lipid antigen availability as well as the generation and persistence of CD1-lipid complexes.

Crystal structure of human CD1e reveals a groove suited for lipid-exchange processes.

CD1e is the only human CD1 protein existing in soluble form in the late endosomes of dendritic cells, where it facilitates the processing of glycolipid antigens that are ultimately recognized by CD1b-restricted T cells. The precise function of CD1e remains undefined, thus impeding efforts to predict the participation of this protein in the presentation of other antigens. To gain insight into its function, we determined the crystal structure of recombinant CD1e expressed in human cells at 2.90-Å resolution. The structure revealed a groove less intricate than in other CD1 proteins, with a significantly wider portal characterized by a 2 Å-larger spacing between the α1 and α2 helices. No electron density corresponding to endogenous ligands was detected within the groove, despite the presence of ligands unequivocally established by native mass spectrometry in recombinant CD1e. Our structural data indicate that the water-exposed CD1e groove could ensure the establishment of loose contacts with lipids. In agreement with this possibility, lipid association and dissociation processes were found to be considerably faster with CD1e than with CD1b. Moreover, CD1e was found to mediate in vitro the transfer of lipids to CD1b and the displacement of lipids from stable CD1b-antigen complexes. Altogether, these data support that CD1e could have evolved to mediate lipid-exchange/editing processes with CD1b and point to a pathway whereby the repertoire of lipid antigens presented by human dendritic cells might be expanded.