Comparative morphology and soft tissue histology of the remote-touch bill-tip organ in three ibis species of differing foraging ecology.

Ibises (order: Pelecaniformes, family: Threskiornithidae) are probe-foraging birds that use 'remote-touch' to locate prey items hidden in opaque substrates. This sensory capability allows them to locate their prey using high-frequency vibrations in the substrate in the absence of other sensory cues. Remote-touch is facilitated by a specialised bill-tip organ, comprising high densities of mechanoreceptors (Herbst corpuscles) embedded in numerous foramina in the beak bones. Each foramen and its associated Herbst corpuscles make up a sensory unit, called a 'sensory pit'. These sensory pits are densely clustered in the distal portion of the beak. Previous research has indicated that interspecific differences in the extent of sensory pitting in the beak bones correlate with aquatic habitat use of ibises, and have been suggested to reflect different levels of remote-touch sensitivity. Our study investigates the interspecific differences in the bone and soft tissue histology of the bill-tip organs of three species of southern African ibises from different habitats (mainly terrestrial to mainly aquatic). We analysed the external pitting pattern on the bones, as well as internal structure of the beak using micro-CT scans and soft tissue histological sections of each species' bill-tip organs. The beaks of all three species contain remote-touch bill-tip organs and are described here in detail. Clear interspecific differences are evident between the species' bill-tip organs, both in terms of bone morphology and soft tissue histology. Glossy Ibises, which forage exclusively in wetter substrates, have a greater extent of pitting but lower numbers of Herbst corpuscles in each pit, while species foraging in drier substrates (Hadeda and Sacred Ibises) have more robust beaks, fewer pits and higher densities of Herbst corpuscles. Our data, together with previously published histological descriptions of the bill-tip organs of other remote-touch foraging bird species, indicate that species foraging in drier habitats have more sensitive bill-tip organs (based on their anatomy). The vibrations produced by prey (e.g., burrowing invertebrates) travel poorly in dry substrates compared with wetter ones (i.e., dry soil vs. mud or water), and thus we hypothesise that a more sensitive bill-tip organ may be required to successfully locate prey in dry substrates. Furthermore, our results indicate that the differences in bill-tip organ anatomy between the species reflect complex trade-offs between morphological constraints of beak shape and remote-touch sensitivity requirements, both of which are likely related to each species' foraging behaviour and substrate usage. Our study suggests that structures in the bone of the bill-tip organ could provide valuable osteological correlates for the associated soft tissues, and consequently may provide information on the sensory ecology and habitat usage of the birds in the absence of soft tissues.

Faunal input at host plants: Can camel thorn trees use nutrients imported by resident sociable weavers?

"Islands of fertility" result from the focussing of water and nutrients around many shrub or tree species due to plants foraging for resources. Plant-animal feedbacks may amplify the development of such islands through environmental modification due to, for example, faunal deposition of nutrients and seeds. Fauna residing within vegetation clumps are likely to exert stronger feedbacks on their hosts than itinerant species. We studied the interaction between camel thorn trees (Vachellia erioloba) and the colonial nests of sociable weavers (Philetairus socius) in the Kalahari. We hypothesized that the accumulation of biological material below the nests will alter the nutrient status of the soil beneath the nest trees, in relation to unoccupied trees and the surrounding grassland. We also suggested that this association will have both positive and negative effects on the camel thorn trees. We found that soil concentrations of N, P, and K were, respectively, 4, 4.6, and 1.2 times higher below trees with nests compared to control trees, indicating faunal concentration of nutrients. Soil δ15N values were higher below trees with nests than below control trees without nests. Foliar δ15N values were also higher in nest trees than in control trees, showing the trees accessed faunally derived N. Furthermore, foliar biomass per diameter of terminal branches was 27% higher in nest trees, suggesting that trees respond to nutrient input from the weavers with increased growth. Large barren areas in the subcanopy vegetation directly beneath the colonies were attributed to decreased water infiltration rates, as a result of accumulation of organic matter due to continuous deposition of feces, possibly limiting competitive species from establishing in the subcanopy. On the other hand, canopy volume was reduced in trees with nests due to nests occupying large volumes within the canopy, and nests frequently causing branch fall, indicating costs associated with hosting weaver colonies. Synthesis: We found nutritional benefits to camel thorn trees when hosting sociable weaver colonies. These benefits can potentially overcome important environmental constraints, but these are partially offset by the resulting costs to the host trees.