Biological fate of [14C]-1-nitropyrene in rats following intragastric administration.

1-Nitropyrene (1-NP), a weak carcinogen associated with diesel exhaust particles, has previously been detected in workplace atmospheres with in-use diesel engines and in the general environment. In order to gain insight in its biological fate, a single dose of [14C]-1-NP (27.6 microCi, 750 mg/kg body weight, b.w.) was administered intragastrically to rats and the presence of metabolites in blood and tissue homogenates, and radioactivity associated with blood proteins and tissue DNA, were studied. Early peak levels of radioactivity observed in blood and tissue homogenates indicated a rapid absorption of [14C]-1-NP from the gastrointestinal tract. Metabolite patterns observed in plasma, liver and kidney homogenates strongly suggested an important role of the intestinal microflora in the enterohepatic recirculation, but not in nitroreduction of 1-NP prior to absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. This might explain the low levels of radioactivity associated with blood proteins, since 1-nitrosopyrene, a product of nitroreduction of 1-NP, is likely to be involved in protein binding. Levels of radioactivity associated with plasma proteins were approximately four times higher than the levels of radioactivity associated with hemoglobin (401.0 and 84.1 pmol/g protein per micromol 1-NP kg b.w., respectively, at 24 h). Maximal 25% of the associated radioactivity was released following mild alkaline hydrolysis of either hemoglobin or plasma proteins. 1-Aminopyrene was the only released compound after hydrolysis of hemoglobin. In addition to 1-aminopyrene, two more polar unidentified metabolites were detected following hydrolysis of plasma proteins. Association of radioactivity with DNA was highest in the liver at the first moments of observation (7.4 pmol 14C Eq./mg DNA per micromol 1-NP kg b.w.), but decreased rapidly to levels lower than observed for kidney DNA (max. 3.0 pmol 14C Eq./mg DNA per micromol 1-NP kg b.w. at 24 h). In lungs 8-50 times less radioactivity was associated with DNA than observed in the liver and kidneys. The results of this study show, that 1-NP undergoes an extensive and complex biotransformation in vivo, resulting in a variety of metabolites present in blood and tissue homogenates and a diversity of blood protein adducts. Concentrations of plasma metabolites, blood protein adducts and DNA adducts were rather low. In addition, previous studies also showed relatively low concentrations of metabolites present in urine. Therefore, sensitive and selective methods will be needed in order to evaluate the biological fate of 1-NP, associated with diesel exhaust particles, in humans.

Sensitive and selective detection of urinary 1-nitropyrene metabolites following administration of a single intragastric dose of diesel exhaust particles (SRM 2975) to rats.

1-Nitropyrene (1-NP) has been proposed as a marker for exposure to diesel exhaust particles (DEP). Since the extent of the actual intake of 1-NP adsorbed on DEP will be relatively low, sensitive and selective methods are needed regarding human exposure assessment. Two analytical methods are presented for the assessment of 1-NP metabolites in urine of male Sprague-Dawley rats administered a single intragastric dose of native DEP (SRM 2975, 20 mg, 35.7 microgram of 1-NP/g). Enzymatically hydrolyzed urine was extracted using Blue Rayon. The extracts were analyzed directly, using HPLC with postcolumn on-line reduction and fluorescence detection (HPLC-Flu), or were processed further for GC/MS/MS analysis. Although sensitive to several metabolites, the HPLC-Flu method lacked selectivity for quantitation of some important metabolites in rat urinary extracts, and therefore seems suitable for screening purposes only. With regard to GC/MS/MS analysis, derivatization with heptafluorobutyrylimidazole (HFBI) yielded low limits of determination for hydroxy-1-aminopyrenes, hydroxy-N-acetyl-1-aminopyrenes (converted to derivatized hydroxy-1-aminopyrenes by the reagent), and 1-aminopyrene (1.8-9.2 fmol on the column). Derivatization of hydroxy-1-nitropyrenes yielded relatively high limits of determination, and therefore, hydroxy-1-nitropyrenes were reduced to hydroxy-1-aminopyrenes prior to derivatization with HFBI. Intragastric administration of DEP to rats resulted in urinary excretion of 6-hydroxy-N-acetyl-1-aminopyrene, 8-hydroxy-N-acetyl-1-aminopyrene, 6-hydroxy-1-nitropyrene, 8-hydroxy-1-nitropyrene, and 3-hydroxy-1-nitropyrene (7, 1.2, 1.6, 0.3, and 0.5% of the dose within 12 h, respectively). 1-Nitropyrene, N-acetyl-1-aminopyrene, and 3-, 6-, and 8-hydroxy-1-aminopyrene were not observed as urinary metabolites following administration of a single dose of DEP. The observed excretion pattern and urinary metabolite concentrations suggest that 1-NP present on unmodified DEP becomes bioavailable to a large extent and is metabolized in the same way as was previously observed following administration of pure 1-NP. The presented methods are promising for assessment of human exposure to 1-NP, e.g., following exposure to DEP, because of the possibility of analyzing large volumes of urine, the conversion of three types of metabolites to one (the amino metabolites), and the low detection limits that are achieved.

Determination of hemoglobin adducts following oral administration of 1-nitropyrene to rats using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

1-Nitropyrene (1-NP) has successfully been used as a marker for environmental monitoring of exposure to diesel exhaust. This study presents a sensitive and selective method for detection of Hb adducts after oral administration of a single dose 1-NP to rats, by measuring 1-aminopyrene (1-AP) after in vitro hydrolysis of the adducts. Released 1-AP was extracted with hexane and derivatized with heptafluorobutyric acid anhydride prior to GC-MS-MS analysis. Optimal conditions for the release of 1-AP were hydrolysis under nitrogen, in 1 M NaOH at 70 degrees C for 60 min. Analysis of a stock solution of Hb adducts of 1-NP utilizing these conditions showed to be reproducible over a period of several weeks with a coefficient of variance of 9.5%. The determination limit was 10-20 pg 1-AP per 70-90 mg globin. A study of the time course of Hb adduct formation showed a fast absorption and an early peak concentration of released 1-AP, approximately 39 pg 1-AP/mg globin at 3 h after exposure. After the maximum was reached, 1-AP concentrations decreased bi-phasically. Initially a fast decline was observed, followed by a slow decrease to 5.9+/-1.9 pg 1-AP/mg globin at 24 h after administration.