Resting state EEG relates to short- and long-term cognitive functioning after cardiac arrest.

BACKGROUND: Approximately half of cardiac arrest survivors have persistent cognitive impairment. Guidelines recommend early screening to identify patients at risk for cognitive impairment, but there is no consensus on the best screening method. We aimed to identify quantitative EEG measures relating with short- and long-term cognitive function after cardiac arrest for potential to cognitive outcome prediction. METHODS: We analyzed data from a prospective longitudinal multicenter cohort study designed to develop a prediction model for cognitive outcome after cardiac arrest. For the current analysis, we used twenty-minute EEG registrations from 80 patients around one week after cardiac arrest. We calculated power spectral density, normalized alpha-to-theta ratio (nATR), peak frequency, and center of gravity (CoG) of this peak frequency. We related these with global cognitive functioning (scores on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA)) at one week, three and twelve months follow-up with multivariate mixed effect models, and with performance on standard neuropsychological examination at twelve months using Pearson correlation coefficients. RESULTS: Each individual EEG parameter related to MoCA at one week (ßnATR=7.36; P<0.01; ßpeak frequency=1.73, P<0.01; ßCoG=-9.88, P <0.01). The nATR also related with the MoCA at three months ((ßnATR=2.49; P 0.01). No EEG metrics significantly related to the MoCA score at twelve months. nATR and peak frequency related with memory performance at twelve months. Results were consistent in sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSION: Early resting-state EEG parameters relate with short-term global cognitive functioning and with memory function at one year after cardiac arrest. Additional predictive values in multimodal prediction models need further study.

Intra- and interpersonal effects of coping style and self-efficacy on anxiety, depression and life satisfaction in patient-partner couples after stroke.

Many stroke patients and partners suffer from anxiety, depression, and low life satisfaction. Psychological factors such as coping style and self-efficacy can be protective factors within individuals. The close relationship between stroke patients and partners suggests that there may be interdependence in psychological functioning. The aim of this study was to examine intra- and interpersonal effects of coping style and self-efficacy on anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction in patient-partners couples. In this prospective cohort study, pro-active coping (UPCC), general self-efficacy (GSES), anxiety (HADS-A), depression (HADS-D), and life satisfaction (1-6 scale) were assessed in 215 couples at 2 and 12 months post-stroke. Effects within couples were assessed using structural equation modelling. Several intra- and interpersonal effects of coping style and self-efficacy at 2 months post-stroke were related to emotional health at 12 months post-stroke. Most effects were intrapersonal effects. The interpersonal effects were small but showed that pro-active coping by the patient was associated with lower anxiety of the partner. Higher self-efficacy of the partner was associated with lower depression scores and higher life satisfaction of the patient. This study underscores the importance of a dyadic approach to post-stroke functioning. It supports a family-based approach for treating post-stroke emotional problems.

The influence of psychological factors and mood on the course of participation up to four years after stroke.

PURPOSE: (1) To explore the course of participation from two months up to four years after stroke, and (2) to examine if adaptive and maladaptive psychological factors and mood measured at two months after stroke are determinants of the course of participation during this period. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Prospective cohort study in which 369 individuals with stroke were assessed at stroke onset, two months, six months, one year, two years and three to four years after stroke. The Utrecht Scale for Evaluation of Rehabilitation-Participation (USER-Participation) restrictions subscale was used to measure participation. Psychological factors were clustered into adaptive (proactive coping, self-efficacy, extraversion and optimism) and maladaptive (passive coping, neuroticism and pessimism) psychological factors. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale was used to assess mood. RESULTS: Although improvements in participation were observed up to one year after stroke, considerable long-term restrictions in social and physical domains persisted. More mood problems and less adaptive psychological factors were independent determinants of worse participation up to four years after stroke. CONCLUSIONS: Participation improves in the first 12 months after stroke and stabilizes afterwards. Mood problems and less adaptive psychological factors negatively influence the course of participation over time up to four years after stroke.Implications for rehabilitationFollow-up assessments after stroke should not only focus on cognitive and motor impairment, but also encompass screening on mood problems and adaptive psychological factors.Implementation of a routine follow-up assessment one year after stroke can be beneficial as restrictions in participation are unlikely to diminish spontaneously from then onwards.

Nurse-led stroke aftercare addressing long-term psychosocial outcome: a comparison to care-as-usual.

PURPOSE: To examine whether nurse-led stroke aftercare is beneficial for long-term psychosocial outcome of community-dwelling persons with stroke. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Comparative effectiveness research design in which a prospective stroke aftercare cohort (n = 87) was compared to care-as-usual (n = 363) at six- and 12-months post stroke. Changes over time in cognitive and emotional problems experienced in daily life, fatigue and stroke impact on daily life were examined for stroke aftercare only. Multilevel modelling was used to compare stroke aftercare to care-as-usual concerning anxiety and depression symptoms, social participation and quality of life, over time. RESULTS: Sample characteristics did not differ between cohorts except for stroke type and on average, more severe stroke in the stroke aftercare cohort (p < 0.05). Following stroke aftercare, anxiety and emotional problems decreased significantly (p < 0.05), whereas care-as-usual remained stable over time in terms of anxiety. No significant changes over time were observed on the other outcome domains. CONCLUSIONS: Nurse-led stroke aftercare showed to be beneficial for emotional well-being in comparison to care-as-usual. Providing psychoeducation and emotional support seem effective elements but adding other therapeutic elements such as self-management strategies might increase the effectiveness of nurse-led stroke aftercare.Implications for rehabilitationRoutine stroke follow-up care should pay attention to psychosocial and emotional outcome in a systematic manner, in addition to secondary prevention.Healthcare professionals such as (specialized) nurses are needed to appropriately address the hidden cognitive and emotional consequences of stroke.Providing psychoeducation and emotional support in stroke aftercare diminish insecurities and worries in community-dwelling persons with stroke, leading to better outcomes.

Which approach to measure cognitive functioning should be preferred when exploring the association between cognitive functioning and participation after stroke?

A variety of approaches are currently used to explore the relationship between cognitive functioning and participation after stroke. We aimed to gain insight into the preferred approach to measure cognitive functioning when exploring the association between cognitive functioning and participation in the long term after stroke. In this inception cohort study 128 individuals with stroke participated and were assessed at a single time point three to four years after the event. Participation was measured using the Restrictions subscale of the Utrecht Scale for Evaluation of Rehabilitation-Participation. Subjective cognitive complaints were assessed using the Cognition subscale of the Checklist for Cognitive and Emotional Consequences (CLCE-24-C). Objective cognitive performance was measured using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and a neuropsychological test battery (NTB) testing multiple cognitive domains. Participation showed a strong correlation (r = 0.51) with the CLCE-24-C and moderate correlations with the domains of visuospatial perception (r = 0.37) and mental speed (r = 0.36). Backward linear regression analyses showed that participation restrictions were best explained by the combination of the CLCE-24-C and a test for visuospatial perception (R2 = 0.31). Our findings suggest the use of a combination of subjective cognitive complaints and objective cognitive performance to explore the relationship between cognitive functioning and participation after stroke.

Screening and patient-tailored care for emotional and cognitive problems compared to care as usual in patients discharged home after ischemic stroke (ECO-stroke): a protocol for a multicenter, patient-blinded, cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Ischemic stroke patients with a good outcome in terms of motor functioning and communication are likely to be discharged home without further rehabilitation. A significant number of these patients experience cognitive and emotional problems resulting in lower quality of life and decreased participation in society. This paper presents the protocol of a study examining the clinical effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and implementation of an intervention focused on screening and patient-tailored care for cognitive and emotional problems as compared to usual care in patients discharged home after ischemic stroke. METHODS / DESIGN: A multicenter, patient-blinded, cluster randomized controlled trial will be performed. Centers will be randomized (1:1) to the intervention group or the usual care group. Patients (> 18 years old) with a neurological confirmed diagnosis of ischemic stroke who can be discharged home without follow-up treatment at an outpatient rehabilitation clinic will be included. In the intervention group, patients will receive a short, individualized, semi-structured consultation by specialized nurses in addition to usual care. This consultation includes 1) screening for cognitive and emotional problems, 2) screening for restrictions in participation, 3) promotion of self-management strategies and 4) a decision tool for referral to rehabilitation services. The intervention will be performed approximately 6 weeks after the stroke at the neurology outpatient clinics and will take approximately 60 min. The control group will receive care as usual. Both groups will be followed-up at 6 weeks, 3 months and 12 months after stroke. The primary outcome will be the level of participation measured with the Restriction subscale of the Utrecht Scale for Evaluation of Rehabilitation on the level of Participation (USER-Participation-R) at 12 months. A cost-effectiveness analysis and process evaluation will be performed alongside. DISCUSSION: This trial is the first to evaluate clinical effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and implementation of screening and patient-tailored care for cognitive and emotional problems compared to care as usual in patients discharged home after ischemic stroke. Potentially, this will improve the outcomes for patients with frequently occurring cognitive and emotional problems after stroke. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Netherlands Trial Register: NL7295 , registered 25 September 2018.

Efficacy of amantadine on behavioural problems due to acquired brain injury: A systematic review.

Objectives: To systematically review literature on efficacy of amantadine on behavior (irritability/aggression/agitation, emotional lability, apathy, impairment of executive functioning), participation, quality-of-life (QoL), and safety, in patients with acquired brain injury (ABI). Amantadine is widely used clinically, so comprehensive information on efficacy, participation, QoL and safety is relevant. Methods: We used PRISMA Guidelines. We searched PubMed/EMBASE/CINAHL (last search 28-8-2018) Two independent reviewers performed selection and data-extraction. Quality of studies was assessed, using CONSORT and Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies (QATFQS). Results: Eleven out of 500 studies were included. Of five RCTs, two reported significant effects on irritability/aggression, and one no effect. One RCT on cognition no effect. One prospective cohort study showed a significant effect on executive functioning. One retrospective study was inconclusive. One single-case experimental design (SCED) study reported significant effect on apathy and three case-reports indicated effects on behavior. QoL and societal participation were not measured. No safety issues emerged. Conclusion: Amantadine may be efficacious on irritability and aggression after ABI. Amantadine is a safe drug in the presence of adequate creatinine clearance. Future studies should use designs, suitable for the heterogeneous ABI population, like randomized SCEDs, and should include the effect on societal participation and QoL.

Predictors of health-related quality of life and participation after brain injury rehabilitation: The role of neuropsychological factors.

The aims of this longitudinal study were: (1) to assess associations between neuropsychological factors and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and participation three months after discharge from inpatient acquired brain injury (ABI) rehabilitation; and (2) to determine the best neuropsychological predictor of HRQoL and participation after controlling for demographic and injury-related factors. Patients with ABI (n = 100) were assessed within approximately two weeks of enrolment in inpatient rehabilitation. Predictor variables included demographic and injury-related characteristics and the following neuropsychological factors: active and passive coping, attention, executive functioning, verbal memory, learning potential, depressive symptoms, motivation, extraversion, neuroticism and self-awareness. Bivariate analyses revealed that passive coping, executive functioning, depressive symptoms, extraversion, and neuroticism were significantly associated with HRQoL and/or participation. Neuropsychological factors significantly explained additional variance in HRQoL (18.1-21.6%) and participation (6.9-20.3%) after controlling for demographic and injury-related factors. However, a higher tendency towards passive coping was the only significant neuropsychological predictor (ß = -0.305 to -0.464) of lower HRQoL and participation. This study shows that neuropsychological functioning, and in particular passive coping, plays a role in predicting HRQoL and participation after inpatient ABI rehabilitation and emphasises the importance of addressing patients' coping styles in an early phase of ABI rehabilitation.

The economic impact of mental healthcare consumption before and after stroke in a cohort of stroke patients in the Netherlands: a record linkage study.

BACKGROUND: Post-stroke healthcare consumption is strongly associated with a mental health diagnosis. This study aimed to identify stroke patients who utilised mental healthcare facilities, explored their mental healthcare consumption pre-stroke and post-stroke, and examined possible predictors of costs incurred by mental healthcare consumption post-stroke. METHODS: Three databases were integrated, namely the Maastricht University Medical Centre (MUMC) Medical Administration, the Stroke Registry from the Department of Neurology at MUMC, and the Psychiatric Case Registry South-Limburg. Patients from the MUMC who suffered their first-ever stroke between January 1 2000 and December 31 2004 were included and their records were analysed for mental healthcare consumption from 5 years preceding to 5 years following their stroke (1995-2009). Regression analysis was conducted to identify possible predictors of mental healthcare consumption costs. RESULTS: A total of 1385 patients were included and 357 (25.8%) received services from a mental healthcare facility during the 10-year reference period around their stroke. The costs of mental healthcare usage increased over time and peaked 1 year post-stroke (€7057; 22% of total mental healthcare costs). The number of hospitalisation days and mental healthcare consumption pre-stroke were significant predictors of mental healthcare costs. Explained variances of these models (costs during the 5 years post-stroke: R 2 = 15.5%, costs across a 10 year reference period: R 2 = 4.6%,) were low. CONCLUSION: Stroke patients have a significant level of mental healthcare comorbidity leading to relatively high mental healthcare costs. There is a relationship between stroke and mental healthcare consumption costs, but results concerning the underlying factors responsible for these costs are inconclusive.

An economic evaluation of an augmented cognitive behavioural intervention vs. computerized cognitive training for post-stroke depressive symptoms.

BACKGROUND: Stroke survivors encounter emotional problems in the chronic phase after stroke. Post-stroke depressive symptoms have major impact on health-related quality of life (HRQol) and lead to increased hospitalization and therefore substantial healthcare costs. We present a cost-effectiveness and cost-utility evaluation of a cognitive behavioural therapy augmented with occupational and movement therapy to support patients with a stroke with depressive symptoms in goal-setting and goal attainment (augmented CBT) in comparison with a computerized cognitive training program (CogniPlus) as a control intervention. METHODS: A trial-based economic evaluation was conducted from a societal perspective with a time horizon of 12 months. Stroke patients (aged 18+ years) with signs of depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) - subscale depression > 7) were eligible to participate. Primary outcomes were the HADS and Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALYs) based on the three-level five-dimensional EuroQol (EQ-5D-3 L). Missing data were handled through mean imputation (costs) and multiple imputation (HADS and EuroQol), and costs were bootstrapped. Sensitivity analyses were performed to test robustness of baseline assumptions. RESULTS: Sixty-one patients were included. The average total societal costs were not significantly different between the control group (€9,998.3) and the augmented CBT group (€8,063.7), with a 95 % confidence interval (-5,284, 1,796). The augmented CBT intervention was less costly and less effective from a societal perspective on the HADS, and less costly and slightly more effective in QALYs, in comparison with the control treatment. The cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses provided greater effects and fewer costs for the augmented CBT group, and fewer effects and costs for the HADS. Based on a willingness to pay (WTP) level of €40,000 per QALY, the augmented CBT intervention had a 76 % chance of being cost-effective. Sensitivity analyses showed robustness of results. CONCLUSION: The stroke-specific augmented CBT intervention did not show convincing cost-effectiveness results. In addition to other literature, this study provided new insights into the potential cost-effectiveness of an adjusted cognitive behavioural therapy intervention. However, as our study showed a 76 % chance of being cost-effective for one outcome measure (QALY) and did not provide convincing cost-effectiveness results on the HADS we recommend further research in a larger population.

Life satisfaction post stroke: The role of illness cognitions.

OBJECTIVE: To describe illness cognitions two months and two years post stroke and to investigate changes in illness cognitions over time. We also examined the associations between illness cognitions and life satisfaction at two months and two years post stroke and investigated if changes in illness cognitions predicted life satisfaction two years post stroke, taking demographic and stroke-related factors and emotional symptoms into account. METHODS: Prospective cohort study in which 287 patients were assessed at two months and two years post stroke. The illness cognitions helplessness (maladaptive), acceptance (adaptive) and perceiving benefits (adaptive) were measured with the Illness Cognition Questionnaire. Life satisfaction was assessed with two life satisfaction questions. Correlational and regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Patients experienced both maladaptive and adaptive illness cognitions two months and two years post stroke. Only acceptance increased significantly from two months to two years post stroke (p≤0.01). Helplessness, acceptance and perceiving benefits were significantly associated with life satisfaction at two months (R2=0.42) and two years (R2=0.57) post stroke. Furthermore, illness cognitions two months post stroke and changes in illness cognitions predicted life satisfaction two years post stroke (R2=0.57). CONCLUSION: Illness cognitions and changes in illness cognitions were independently associated with life satisfaction two years post stroke. It is therefore important during rehabilitation to focus on reducing maladaptive behavior and feelings to promote life satisfaction, and on promoting adaptive illness cognitions.

Awareness of memory functioning in patients with stroke who have a good functional outcome.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To determine whether patients with stroke who have a good functional outcome show awareness of memory functioning and whether over- and under-estimation of memory performance are differentially related to neuropsychological performance. RESEARCH DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: The Barrow Neurological Institute Screen for Higher Cerebral Functions and a brief neuropsychological assessment were used to evaluate language, orientation, attention, visuospatial problem-solving, perception, reasoning, executive functioning, memory, affect and awareness of memory functioning. As for the latter, the patient's estimate of memory functioning was compared with his or her actual memory performance. Patients were divided into three groups: good-estimators (estimated performance = actual performance), over-estimators (estimated performance > actual performance) and under-estimators (estimated performance < actual performance). MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: In total, 54 patients with stroke were included, of whom 27 patients were classified as good-estimators, 19 as over-estimators and eight as under-estimators. Compared to good-estimators, over-estimators had significantly lower scores for all cognitive domains. Under-estimators had significantly poorer affect compared to good-estimators. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary results suggest that over- and under-estimation of memory functioning can be observed in patients with stroke who have a good functional outcome and that they may reflect distinct underlying neuropsychological processes.

[Patients with brain injury in a psychiatric setting; assessment of health care needs and received care]. / Klinische patiënten met niet-aangeboren hersenletsel in de ggz; inventarisatie van zorgbehoeftes en ontvangen zorg.

BACKGROUND: In some Dutch mental health care organisations specific neuropsychiatric departments have been developed for patients with brain injury. AIM: To identify the characteristics of patients with brain injury who form a specific population in mental health care and to determine whether such patients require either specialised care or a special type of care. METHOD: A cross-sectional analysis of typical brain injury inpatients was performed. We noted the age and gender of these patients and recorded any previous periods of inpatient care. We listed patients' impairments, the diagnoses they had been given and the treatment they had received. This inventory formed the basis of our conclusions. RESULTS: The typical clinical patient with brain injury in this setting was a male of 51 years or older, most probably affected by a stroke or traumatic brain injury, admitted for a period of 6 months, many years after the incident. He was mostly referred from home or hospital by a physician and was expected to return home again. A combination of cognitive and psychiatric impairments was often found. Physically the patient had no or only mild disabilities, but societal participation was low and many cognitive-affective disorders were seen. Treatment was relatively infrequent and mostly directed at daily activities. The most frequent diagnosis was & lquo;cognitive deficits not otherwise specified'. Irritability, agitation, apathy and depression were frequent symptoms. CONCLUSION: This inventory suggests that brain injury patients in a mental health care setting need special care which is not available in other health care settings.

Course of cognitive functioning during stroke rehabilitation.

The aim of the study was to determine the course of cognitive functioning within the subacute phase (< 4 months) after stroke during rehabilitation. Stroke patients admitted to a rehabilitation centre were submitted to a neuropsychological examination on admission (1 month post-stroke) and upon discharge (4 months post-stroke). Cognitive domains studied were attention, executive functioning, memory, and visual attention. Forty-two patients (mean age = 57.1 years; SD = 7.7) participated. At admission more than half of the patients showed deficits in attention and memory. Patients improved significantly on these domains; the largest improvement was seen in the domain of visual attention, while executive functioning did not improve significantly. A differential course of cognitive functioning was found in the subacute phase after stroke. The prognosis of visual attention is the most prominent.

Use of an electronic cognitive aid by a person with Korsakoff syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the feasibility and the effectiveness of the use of a customized personal digital assistant (PDA) to support cognitive functioning in a person with Korsakoff syndrome. METHOD: The PDA was compared with no external support and the use of a memory watch in a single case experimental design. Three main personal goal tasks were defined: "arrive at appointments on time", "execute a long-term task successfully", and "remember to ask for medication". RESULTS: No significant differences were found between the use of the memory watch and the use of the customized PDA. PDA use was perceived as feasible and effective and was considered as a more comprehensive aid than the memory watch. CONCLUSION: This study shows that a person with Korsakoff syndrome is able to use and benefit from a customized PDA. Replication of these findings in a larger effectiveness study is necessary.

Clinicians' views on learning in brain injury rehabilitation.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To determine clinicians' views on learning ability in brain injury rehabilitation. RESEARCH DESIGN: Online survey. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: An online survey was sent to physicians, psychologists and therapists of three Dutch organizations for neuropsychology or rehabilitation. The survey enquired (1) whether clinicians take learning ability into account; (2) about factors influencing learning ability; and (3) about assessment tools used to assess learning ability. MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Thirty-seven physicians, 83 psychologists and 43 therapists completed the online survey. In total, 93% of respondents reported that they take learning ability into account when making a prognosis. The most frequently mentioned factors influencing learning ability were cognition, awareness of deficits and motivation. Learning ability was mainly determined by means of cognitive and memory tests and observations during therapy. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that a patient's learning ability may be influenced by not only cognition but also by motivation and awareness of deficits. Structured and standardized assessment of these factors may be suggested for standard use in clinical practice. More research is needed about the influence these factors have on the learning process.

Validity and feasibility of a learning style instrument for brain injury rehabilitation.

PURPOSE: Identifying learning styles of acquired brain injury (ABI) patients may aid the learning process by tailoring to the patient's learning needs and preferences. Currently, there is no learning style instrument for ABI patients. We therefore determined the validity and feasibility of the Adapted Learning Style Inventory (A-LSI) for patients with ABI. METHOD: We included 99 patients with ABI and 42 healthy controls. Learning styles were determined and subgroups were used to evaluate the validity of the A-LSI. Furthermore, rehabilitation professionals' perceptions on learning style and the A-LSI were evaluated. RESULTS: In the patient group, the A-LSI yielded the following learning styles: 4 doers, 54 observers, 2 deciders and 39 thinkers. A similar distribution was found for the control group (3, 28, 0 and 11, respectively). Spearman correlations revealed moderate internal validity. Content validity of the A-LSI was also moderate; 11 out of 19 patients recognized themselves in their A-LSI learning style. Furthermore, 12 rehabilitation professionals reported positive and negative aspects of the A-LSI and suggestions for using learning style in rehabilitation. CONCLUSIONS: Rehabilitation professionals were generally positive about using learning style in ABI rehabilitation. This study, however, raises doubts about the validity and feasibility of the A-LSI for this population. IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION: Rehabilitation professionals are generally positive about the assessment and implementation of learning style in rehabilitation. The A-LSI seems to be an inappropriate learning style instrument for individuals with ABI. There is a need for a more practical instrument to assess learning style directly at start of rehabilitation.

Effectiveness of a process-oriented patient-tailored outpatient neuropsychological rehabilitation programme for patients in the chronic phase after ABI.

The objective of this prospective cohort study was to examine the effectiveness of an outpatient neuropsychological rehabilitation programme for patients with acquired brain injury (ABI) and their relatives. The participants were 26 ABI patients with a mean age of 44.7 (SD 11.7) years and 24 caregivers. Mean time since injury was 3.0 (SD 3.6) years. The intervention consisted of a patient-tailored process-oriented neuropsychological rehabilitation programme focusing on facilitation of the adaptation process. Repeated measurements were taken prior to treatment (T0), directly after treatment (T1) and 6 months later (T2). Primary outcome measures were cognitive failures (CFQ), quality of life (SA-SIP30), and individualised goals (GAS). Patients improved significantly on individualised goals between T0 and T1 (p < .01). This effect retained at T2. There were no significant differences on CFQ and SA-SIP30. The programme had a positive effect on attainment of the patient's individual goals. This was not associated with a higher level of participation or a better quality of life.

Effectiveness of an electronic cognitive aid in patients with acquired brain injury: a multicentre randomised parallel-group study.

The objective of the study was to examine the effectiveness of a customised personal digital assistant (PDA) as a cognitive aid for people with acquired brain injury, using a randomised parallel-group study. The participants were 34 patients with acquired brain injury in a cognitive rehabilitation setting. The experimental group used a customised PDA, while the control group received care-as-usual (paper-and-pencil aids). Measurements were conducted at baseline (T0), after 8 hours of training (T1), after 16 hours of training (T2), and at 5-month follow-up (T3). The main outcome was the attainment of individualised goals. Both groups showed a significant increase in goal attainment (GAS) (p < .001). There were no significant differences between the groups at T1 or T2 on any of the other outcome measures. It was concluded that the customised PDA was as effective as paper-and-pencil aids, and may therefore serve as a useful alternative when choosing the optimal rehabilitation strategy for a patient.