Photosynthesis of Blueberry Leaves as Affected by Septoria Leaf Spot and Abiotic Leaf Damage.

Leaf spots caused by fungal pathogens or abiotic factors can be prevalent on southern blueberries after harvest during the summer and fall, yet little is known about how they affect physiological processes that determine yield potential for the following year. In this study, we measured CO2 assimilation and leaf conductance on field-grown blueberry plants affected by Septoria leaf spot (caused by Septoria albopunctata) or by edema-like abiotic leaf blotching. Net assimilation rate (NAR) on healthy leaves varied between 6.9 and 12.4 µmol m-2 s-1 across cultivars and measurement dates. Infection by S. albopunctata had a significant negative effect on photosynthesis, with NAR decreasing exponentially as disease severity increased (R2 ≥0.726, P < 0.0001). NAR was reduced by approximately one-half at 20% disease severity, and values approached zero for leaves with >50% necrotic leaf area. There was a positive, linear correlation between NAR and leaf conductance (R2 ≥ 0.622, P < 0.0001), suggesting that the disease may have reduced photosynthesis via decreased CO2 diffusion into affected leaves. Estimates of virtual lesion size associated with infection by S. albopunctata ranged from 2.8 to 3.1, indicating that the leaf area in which photosynthesis was impaired was about three times as large as the area covered by necrosis. For leaves afflicted by edema-like damage, there also was a significant negative relationship between NAR and affected leaf area, but the scatter about the regression was more pronounced than in the NAR-disease severity relationships for S. albopunctata (R2 = 0.548, P < 0.0001). No significant correlation was observed between leaf conductance and affected area on these leaves (P = 0.145), and the virtual lesion size associated with abiotic damage was significantly smaller than that caused by S. albopunctata. Adequate carbohydrate supply during the fall is critical for optimal flower bud set in blueberry; therefore, these results document the potential for marked yield losses due to biotic and abiotic leaf spots.

Evaluation of Electrolyzed Oxidizing Water for Management of Powdery Mildew on Gerbera Daisy.

Powdery mildew has been a major concern for greenhouse growers. Acidic electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) water was evaluated for the management of powdery mildew on gerbera daisy. EO water significantly reduced percent powdery mildew when sprayed twice a week and when sprayed every other week, alternating with fungicides. Studies were completed to determine if EO water could be used in an integrated management system. EO water was compatible with several fungicides and insecticides in an in vitro assay. However, EO water was not compatible with thiophanate methyl at the full rate and acephate at both the half and full rates. EO water is a viable option for controlling powdery mildew on gerbera daisies and provides growers an additional tool to reduce the use of traditional fungicides in greenhouses.

In Vitro Fungicidal Activity of Acidic Electrolyzed Oxidizing Water.

Acidic electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) water, generated by electrolysis of a dilute salt solution, recently gained attention in the food industry as a nonthermal method for microbial inactivation. Our objective was to determine if EO water has potential to control foliar diseases in greenhouses. Test fungi suspended in distilled water were combined with EO water (1:9 water:EO water) for various time periods, the EO water was neutralized, and germination was assessed after 24 h. Germination of all 22 fungal species tested was significantly reduced or prevented by EO water. All relatively thin-walled species (e.g., Botrytis, Monilinia) were killed by incubation times of 30 s or less. Thicker-walled, pigmented fungi (e.g., Curvularia, Helminthosporium) required 2 min or longer for germination to be reduced significantly. Dilution of EO water with tap water at ratios of 1:4 and 1:9 (EO:tap water) decreased efficacy against Botrytis cinerea. The presence of Triton X-100 (all concentrations) and Tween 20 (1 and 10%) eliminated the activity of EO water against B. cinerea. EO water did not damage geranium leaf tissue and inhibited lesion development by B. cinerea when applied up to 24 h postinoculation. EO water has a wide fungicidal activity which could facilitate its use as a contact fungicide on aerial plant surfaces and for general sanitation in the greenhouse.

Application technique and irrigation method affect imidacloprid control of silverleaf whiteflies (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on poinsettias.

Subirrigation systems are increasingly used to water and fertilize greenhouse crops. They also appear to be well suited for the application of systemic pesticides. We conducted two studies to look at interactive effects ofimidacloprid application technique and irrigation method on plant uptake of imidacloprid and whitefly control. Drench applications of imidacloprid resulted in much higher concentrations in the leaves than applications to the bottom of pots after 14 d. However, imidacloprid efficacy in subirrigated plants was better if the imidacloprid was applied to the bottom of the pot than when an equal amount was applied as a drench. In drip-irrigated plants, imidacloprid efficacy was greater after a drench than after an application to the bottom of the pots. A second study showed that drench applications to drip-irrigated plants result in high imidacloprid concentrations in the bottom of the canopy, whereas bottom applications to subirrigated plants result in a more even distribution of imidacloprid throughout the plant. Surprisingly, the high leaf imidacloprid concentrations in the bottom layer of drip-irrigated plants did not result in improved whitefly control. Imidacloprid efficacy was better in subirrigated, bottom-treated plants than in drip-irrigated, drenched plants. Overall, results from these studies indicate that imidacloprid is very effective when applied to the bottom of subirrigated pots.

Imidacloprid applications by subirrigation for control of silverleaf whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on poinsettia.

The objective of this study was to determine whether silverleaf whiteflies, Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring, on poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima Willdenow ex Klotsch, can be controlled with imidacloprid applied by subirrigation. Different amounts of imidacloprid uptake by the growing medium were obtained by not watering the subirrigated plants for 0, 1, 2, or 4 d before the imidacloprid application. These treatments resulted in absorption of 12-175 ml of imidacloprid solution by the growing medium. These treatments were compared with untreated control plants and plants that were treated with a standard drench application (100 ml) to the top of the growing medium. All imidacloprid treatments resulted in a significant decrease in both the survival of adult whiteflies and number of immature whiteflies on the plants. Subirrigation treatments resulted in better control of adult and immature whiteflies than drench application. Withholding water for 2 or 4 d before the imidacloprid application by subirrigation improved control of immature whiteflies. This indicates that the application of imidacloprid to poinsettia by subirrigation is a practical and efficient method to control silverleaf whiteflies.

Whole-plant CO2 exchange measurements on azaleas injured by azalea lace bug (Heteroptea: Tingidae) feeding.

Whole-plant gas exchange was measured continuously for 24 h on rooted cuttings of Girard's 'Pleasant White' azaleas. Azalea treatments were azalea lace bug, Stephanitis pyrioides (Scott), feeding injury levels that averaged 6, 13, or 31% leaf-area injury throughout the plant canopies. Gas exchange parameters, including net photosynthesis, dark respiration, carbon use efficiency, and growth, were compared with undamaged control plants. Responses of Girard's 'Pleasant White' azaleas suggested that azaleas were tolerant of lace bug feeding injury levels above the aesthetic threshold. Azalea tolerance can be incorporated into an integrated management plan to reduce chemical inputs into the urban landscape.

A multiple chamber, semicontinuous, crop carbon dioxide exchange system: design, calibration, and data interpretation.

Long-term, whole crop CO2 exchange measurements can be used to study factors affecting crop growth. These factors include daily carbon gain, cumulative carbon gain, and carbon use efficiency, which cannot be determined from short-term measurements. We describe a system that measures semicontinuously crop CO2 exchange in 10 chambers over a period of weeks or months. Exchange of CO2 in every chamber can be measured at 5 min intervals. The system was designed to be placed inside a growth chamber, with additional environmental control provided by the individual gas exchange chambers. The system was calibrated by generating CO2 from NaHCO3 inside the chambers, which indicated that accuracy of the measurements was good (102% and 98% recovery for two separate photosynthesis systems). Since the systems measure net photosynthesis (P-net, positive) and dark respiration(R-dark, negative), the data can be used to estimate gross photosynthesis, daily carbon gain, cumulative carbon gain, and carbon use efficiency. Continuous whole-crop measurements are a valuable tool that complements leaf photosynthesis measurements. Multiple chambers allow for replication and comparison among several environmental or cultural treatments that may affect crop growth. Example data from a 2 week study with petunia (Petunia x hybrida Hort. Vilm.-Andr.) are presented to illustrate some of the capabilities of this system.

Increased Organic Matter in the Growing Medium Decreases Benlate DF Phytotoxicity.

Some benzimidazole fungicides are phytotoxic to bedding plants. Organic pesticides are bound to the organic matter fraction in the root zone and their availability to plants depends on the composition of the growing medium. Thus, pesticide phytotoxicity may be affected by the fraction of organic matter in the growing medium. We conducted two studies to examine the relationship between benzimidazole phytotoxicity and organic matter content of the growing medium. In the first study, plants were grown in diatomaceous earth, containing no organic matter, and drenched with different fungicides. Benlate DF reduced carbon accumulation (growth) of the plants by 32 and 73% at the 0.5× and 1× label rate, respectively. Carbon gain of plants drenched with either Derosal or 3336 WP was similar to that of the control plants. Both Benlate DF and 3336 WP significantly decreased the number of flowers on the plants. The second study quantified the phytotoxicity of Benlate DF in media containing different amounts of organic matter. The growth of Benlate DF-treated plants was strongly affected by the amount of peat. Net photosynthesis decreased and the severity of visual symptoms (chlorosis) of Benlate DF phytotoxicity increased in media containing less peat. Benlate DF phytotoxicity strongly depends on the amount of organic matter in the growing medium, probably due to sorption of the active ingredient of Benlate DF and/or its breakdown products to the organic matter.

Phytotoxic effects of benzimidazole fungicides on bedding plants.

Benzimidazoles are effective and widely used fungicides, but they may be phytotoxic. We studied the effects of a single drench application of six benzimidazoles and one acetanilide fungicide on photosynthetic gas exchange, growth, development, and nutrient levels of four species of bedding plants in twenty growth-chamber and four greenhouse studies. Daily carbon gain and carbon-use efficiency were calculated from continuous crop gas-exchange measurements in the growth chambers. The maximum labeled rate of Benlate DF caused a 7- to 10-day decrease in net photosynthesis and daily carbon gain in transplants of all species. It also caused pronounced interveinal chlorosis and a 2- to 3-day delay in flowering. Growth of Benlate DF-treated plants was reduced more at high (90%) than at low (60% to 80%) relative humidity. Benlate DF had severe effects on 2-week-old petunia (Petunia xhybrida) seedlings in plug flats, reducing photosynthesis 25% to 57%. Cleary's 3336 WP decreased photosynthesis in some trials. Benlate DF reduced photosynthesis within 24 hours, but 3336 WP effects did not become apparent until 1 week after the treatment. This suggests different modes of inhibition. 3336 WP also caused leaf-tip and marginal chlorosis in impatiens (Impatiens wallerana). Mertect 340-F was extremely phytotoxic but is not labeled for drench applications (it was included because of its chemical similarity to other benzimidazoles). The only benzimidazole fungicide that did not reduce photosynthesis was Derosal, but it caused slight interveinal chlorosis in some studies with petunia. Benlate DF and Derosal decreased leaf Ca levels. Subdue (or metalaxyl), an acetanilide fungicide, did not affect photosynthesis or cause any visual symptoms. Our results indicate that some benzimidazole fungicides can cause growth reductions and visual damage in bedding plants.

Influence of Meloidogyne incognita on the Water Relations of Cotton Grown in Microplots.

The effects of Meloidogyne incognita on the growth and water relations of cotton were evaluated in a 2-year field study. Microplots containing methyl bromide-fumigated fine sandy loam soil were infested with the nematode and planted to cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Treatments included addition of nematodes alone, addition of nematodes plus the insecticide-nematicide aldicarb (1.7 kg/ha), and an untreated control. Meloidogyne incognita population densities reached high levels in both treatments where nematodes were included. Root galling, plant height at harvest, and seed cotton yield were decreased by nematode infection. In older plants (89 days after planting [DAP]), leaf transpiration rates and stomatal conductance were reduced, and leaf temperature was increased by nematode infection. Nematode infection did not affect (P = 0.05) leaf water potential in either young or older plants but lowered the osmotic potential. The maximum rate and cumulative amount of water flowing through intact plants during a 24-hour period were lower, on both a whole-plant and per-unit-leaf-area basis, in infected plants than in control plants. Application of aldicarb moderated some of the nematode effects but did not eliminate them.