The relationship between motor performance and executive functioning in early childhood: A systematic review on motor demands embedded within executive function tasks.

This systematic review examined to what extent response demands of executive functioning (EF) tasks influence the relationship between motor performance and EF in 2- to 6-year-old typically developing (TD) children and children with motor coordination difficulties (MCD). Eighteen of the included articles focused on TD children only and three also on children with MCD. EF tasks were subdivided based on the type of responses (i.e., motor or verbal). EF tasks requiring a motor response were subdivided into two levels (i.e., complex or simple). Results showed that the relationship between motor performance and EF in 2- to 6-year-old TD children and children with MCD was inconclusive with the strength of correlation coefficients for the most part varying from very weak to moderate. The type of EF task response did not influence the relationship between motor performance and EF. The review thus implies that other task demands than the type of EF task response need to be investigated to explain the inconsistent relationship between motor performance and EF, such as the complexity of the motor response of EF tasks, the complexity of the actual motor tasks, and additional processes (e.g., memory, intelligence, language comprehension).

Assessing Motor Performance in Preschool Children: The Zurich Neuromotor Assessment-2 and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2.

Comparing motor assessment tools that are available for young children is important in order to select the most appropriate clinical and research tools. Hence, this study compared motor performance assessed with the Zurich Neuromotor Assessment-2 (ZNA-2) to the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2). The sample consisted of 169 children, aged 3-5 years (87 boys; 51%). We used Pearson correlations to examine relationships between the ZNA-2 and MABC-2 component and total scores. In addition, Pearson correlations were performed between individual fine motor and balance items of the ZNA-2 and MABC-2. Results were that the total scores of the ZNA-2 and MABC-2 correlated moderately (r = .40, p < .001). Non-significant to moderate correlations were found between components (r = -.00 to .47) and between individual items of fine motor skills (r = .04 to .38) and balance (r = -.12 to .38). Thus, the ZNA-2 and MABC-2 measure partly similar and partly different aspects of motor performance.

The degree of stability in motor performance in preschool children and its association with child-related variables.

Understanding the stability of individual differences in motor performance during the early years of life, despite normative age-related growth in motor performance, has important implications for identification of motor coordination difficulties and subsequently, early remediation. Therefore, the aims of the present study were to examine the degree of rank-order and individual-level stability in motor performance in young children with different levels of motor skill proficiency. Subsequently, we explored the influence of child variables (i.e., age, gender, and behavioural self-regulation) on different aspects of stability. In this longitudinal study, a community sample of 68 participants (49% girls) with a mean age of 3 years and 11 months (SD = 7 months) were assesses in three six-monthly waves. The total standard score of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used as the measure of motor performance. Rank-order stability was examined with zero-order Pearson correlations. Individual-level stability was examined by means of stability in classifications (at risk for motor coordination difficulties versus typically developing). In addition to examining stability in group classification, the Reliable Change Index (RCI) was calculated to examine if the difference in a child's scores over time exceeded (increased or decreased relative to) the expected change. The results showed moderate to high rank-order stability between time points. No significant differences in degree of rank-order stability were found between boys and girls and between 3-year old and 4-year old children. In terms of stability of classification, it was shown that for ~50% of the children with motor coordination difficulties and ~ 90% of typically developing the classification based on the cut-off score on the MABC-2 was stable. Based on the RCI, over 90% showed individual-level stability. The level of behavioural self-regulation at T1 (as measured with the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task) was not significantly related to individual-level stability in motor performance. In conclusion, our findings highlight the importance of a careful choice of stability measures and a reflection on the implications of their results. More research is needed to understand which child and environmental variables impact on stability.

Emerging School Readiness Profiles: Motor Skills Matter for Cognitive- and Non-cognitive First Grade School Outcomes.

A promising approach for studying school readiness involves a person-centered approach, aimed at exploring how functioning in diverse developmental domains conjointly affects children's school outcomes. Currently, however, a systematic understanding lacks of how motor skills, in conjunction with other school readiness skills, affect a child's school outcomes. Additionally, little is known about longitudinal associations of school readiness with non-academic (e.g., socioemotional) school outcomes. Therefore, we examined the school readiness skills of a sample of Dutch children (N = 91) with a mean age of 3 years and 4 months (46% girls). We used a multi-informant test battery to assess children's school readiness in terms of executive functions (EFs), language and emergent literacy, motor skills, and socioemotional behavior. During the spring term of a child's first grade year, we collected academic and non-academic (i.e., EFs, motor skills, socioemotional- and classroom behavior, and creative thinking) school outcomes. A latent profile analysis revealed four distinct profiles. Children in the "Parent Positive" (29%) profile were rated positively by their parents, and performed variably on motor and language/emergent literacy skills tests. The second profile-"Multiple Strengths" (13%)-consisted of children showing strengths in multiple domains, especially with respect to motor skills. Children from the third profile-"Average Performers" (50%)-did not show any distinct strengths or weaknesses, rather displayed school readiness skill levels close to, or just below the sample mean. Finally, the "Parental Concern" (8%) profile was characterized by high levels of parental concerns, while displaying slightly above average performance on specific motor and language skills. Motor skills clearly distinguished between profiles, next to parent-rated EFs and socioemotional behavior, and to a lesser extent emergent literacy skills. School readiness profiles were found to differ in mean scores on first grade academic achievement, parent- and teacher-rated EFs, motor skills, parent-rated socioemotional functioning, and pre-requisite learning skills. The pattern of mean differences was complex, suggesting that profiles could not be ranked from low to high in terms of school outcomes. Longitudinal studies are needed to disentangle the interaction between emerging school readiness of the child and the surrounding context.

The Relationships between Sibling Characteristics and Motor Performance in 3- to 5-Year-Old Typically Developing Children.

Siblings have been hypothesized to positively impact the motor performance of children by acting as examples and by providing a safe environment, but they may also negatively impact motor performance because they could compete for the parent's time and care. Therefore, this study investigates the relationship between several sibling characteristics and motor performance in 3- to 5-year-old children. The sample consisted of 205 3- to 5-year-old children (mean age 50.9 ± 10.0 months, 52.2% boys). The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 was used to measure motor performance. The sibling variable was operationalized as the number of siblings present, the age difference between a child and its siblings, and the birth order position of a child. The confounding variables that were taken into account were the age, sex, and behavioral problems of the child and maternal education level. None of the investigated sibling variables were related to the total motor performance of a child after controlling for possible confounding variables. The absence of any associations between the sibling variables and motor performance might be explained by the characteristics of the study sample, the possibility that there is no linear relationship, or the presence of still unknown moderating or mediating factors.

Task-Specific and Latent Relationships Between Motor Skills and Executive Functions in Preschool Children.

There has been an increasing interest in the relationship between motor skills and executive functions (EFs) in young children over the years. However, no clear picture on the relationship between both domains has emerged from these studies. We have extended previous findings by conducting a comprehensive examination of task-specific and latent relationships between a range of motor skills and EFs in preschool children. The sample consisted of 198 3- to 5-year-old children (102 boys; 51.5%). Motor skills were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children Second Edition. EFs were assessed with the performance-based tasks 'Day/Night,' 'Hand Tapping,' 'Forward Corsi Block,' 'Forward Digit Recall,' and 'Conflict Task,' and a rating-based EF measure (i.e., the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning - Preschool version). Task-specific relationships were examined using zero-order Pearson correlations. Latent factors of motor skills and EFs were examined using confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine latent relationships. The results of the Pearson correlation analyses showed statistically significant albeit weak correlations between specific motor and EF items (r = 0.15 to r = 0.23). SEM showed non-significant weak relationships between a general motor factor (as a unitary latent construct) on the one hand, and performance-based EFs and rating-based EFs (as latent EF components) on the other hand. In conclusion, this study suggested only weak relationships between motor skills and EFs in preschool children with no clear differences between their task-specific and latent relationships.

Identifying patterns of motor performance, executive functioning, and verbal ability in preschool children: A latent profile analysis.

BACKGROUND: A relationship between motor performance and cognitive functioning is increasingly being recognized. Yet, little is known about the precise nature of the relationship between both domains, especially in early childhood. AIMS: To identify distinct constellations of motor performance, executive functioning (EF), and verbal ability in preschool aged children; and to explore how individual and contextual variables are related to profile membership. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: The sample consisted of 119 3- to 4-year old children (62 boys; 52%). The home based assessments consisted of a standardized motor test (Movement Assessment Battery for Children - 2), five performance-based EF tasks measuring inhibition and working memory, and the Receptive Vocabulary subtest from the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Third Edition. Parents filled out the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Preschool version. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to delineate profiles of motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. Chi-square statistics and multinomial logistic regression analysis were used to examine whether profile membership was predicted by age, gender, risk of motor coordination difficulties, ADHD symptomatology, language problems, and socioeconomic status (SES). OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: LPA yielded three profiles with qualitatively distinct response patterns of motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. Quantitatively, the profiles showed most pronounced differences with regard to parent ratings and performance-based tests of EF, as well as verbal ability. Risk of motor coordination difficulties and ADHD symptomatology were associated with profile membership, whereas age, gender, language problems, and SES were not. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our results indicate that there are distinct subpopulations of children who show differential relations with regard to motor performance, EF, and verbal ability. The fact that we found both quantitative as well as qualitative differences between the three patterns of profiles underscores the need for a person-centered approach with a focus on patterns of individual characteristics.

The relationship between motor performance and parent-rated executive functioning in 3- to 5-year-old children: What is the role of confounding variables?

It is generally agreed that motor performance and executive functioning (EF) are intertwined. As the literature on this issue concerning preschool children is scarce, we examined the relationship between motor performance and parent-rated EF in a sample of 3- to 5-year-old children with different levels of motor skill proficiency, while controlling for age, gender, socio-economic status (SES), and attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology. EF was reported by parents of 153 children (mean age 4years 1months, SD 8months; 75 male) by means of the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool version (BRIEF-P). Parent-reported ADHD symptoms were assessed using the Hyperactivity-Inattention subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire3-4. In addition, the children performed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2). Several weak to moderate relationships were found between the MABC-2 Total Score and the EF subscales. Once other variables such as age, gender, SES, and ADHD symptomatology were taken into account, the only BRIEF-P subscale that was associated with the MABC-2 Total Score was the Working Memory subscale. Compared to their typically developing peers, children who are at risk for motor coordination difficulties (⩽the 16th percentile on the MABC-2) performed poorly on the Working Memory subscale, which confirms the results of the regression analyses. The at risk group also performed significantly worse on the Planning/Organize subscale, however. This is one of the first studies investigating the relationship between motor performance and parent-rated EF in such a young age group. It shows that the relationship between motor performance and EF in young children is complex and may be influenced by the presence of confounding variables such as ADHD symptomatology.