Did the UK's public health shielding policy protect the clinically extremely vulnerable during the COVID-19 pandemic in Wales? Results of EVITE Immunity, a linked data retrospective study.

INTRODUCTION: The UK shielding policy intended to protect people at the highest risk of harm from COVID-19 infection. We aimed to describe intervention effects in Wales at 1 year. METHODS: Retrospective comparison of linked demographic and clinical data for cohorts comprising people identified for shielding from 23 March to 21 May 2020; and the rest of the population. Health records were extracted with event dates between 23 March 2020 and 22 March 2021 for the comparator cohort and from the date of inclusion until 1 year later for the shielded cohort. RESULTS: The shielded cohort included 117,415 people, with 3,086,385 in the comparator cohort. The largest clinical categories in the shielded cohort were severe respiratory condition (35.5%), immunosuppressive therapy (25.9%) and cancer (18.6%). People in the shielded cohort were more likely to be female, aged ≥50 years, living in relatively deprived areas, care home residents and frail. The proportion of people tested for COVID-19 was higher in the shielded cohort (odds ratio [OR] 1.616; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.597-1.637), with lower positivity rate incident rate ratios 0.716 (95% CI 0.697-0.736). The known infection rate was higher in the shielded cohort (5.9% vs 5.7%). People in the shielded cohort were more likely to die (OR 3.683; 95% CI: 3.583-3.786), have a critical care admission (OR 3.339; 95% CI: 3.111-3.583), hospital emergency admission (OR 2.883; 95% CI: 2.837-2.930), emergency department attendance (OR 1.893; 95% CI: 1.867-1.919) and common mental disorder (OR 1.762; 95% CI: 1.735-1.789). CONCLUSION: Deaths and healthcare utilisation were higher amongst shielded people than the general population, as would be expected in the sicker population. Differences in testing rates, deprivation and pre-existing health are potential confounders; however, lack of clear impact on infection rates raises questions about the success of shielding and indicates that further research is required to fully evaluate this national policy intervention.

British Society for Immunology and United Kingdom Primary Immunodeficiency Network (UKPIN) consensus guideline for the management of immunoglobulin replacement therapy.

Currently, there is no guideline to support the use of immunoglobulin replacement therapy (IgRT) in primary and secondary immunodeficiency disorders in UK. The UK Primary Immunodeficiency Network (UK-PIN) and the British Society of Immunology (BSI) joined forces to address this need. Given the paucity of evidence, a modified Delphi approach was used covering statements for the initiation, monitoring, discontinuation of IgRT as well as home therapy programme. A group of six consultant immunologists and three nurse specialists created the statements, reviewed responses and feedback and agreed on final recommendations. This guideline includes 22 statements for initiation, 22 statements for monitoring, 11 statement for home therapy, and 19 statements for discontinuation of IgRT. Further areas of research are proposed to improve future delivery of care.

British Society for Immunology/United Kingdom Primary Immunodeficiency Network consensus statement on managing non-infectious complications of common variable immunodeficiency disorders.

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) represents a heterogeneous group of rare disorders. There is considerable morbidity and mortality as a result of non-infectious complications, and this presents clinicians with management challenges. Clinical guidelines to support the management of CVID are urgently required. The UK Primary Immunodeficiency Network and the British Society for Immunology funded a joint project to address this. A modified Delphi Survey was conducted for the assessment, diagnosis and treatment of the non-infectious blood, respiratory, gut and liver complications of CVID. A steering group of 10 consultant immunologists and one nurse specialist developed and reviewed the survey statements and agreed the final recommendations. In total, 22 recommendations and three areas for research were developed.

Chronic norovirus infection in primary immune deficiency disorders: an international case series.

OBJECTIVE: Predictive factors associated with clinical outcomes of chronic norovirus infection (CNI) in primary immunodeficiency diseases (PIDD) are lacking. METHOD: We sought to characterize CNI using a multi-institutional cohort of patients with PIDD and CNI using the Clinical Immunology Society's CIS-PIDD Listserv e-mail group. RESULTS: Thirty-four subjects (21 males and 13 females) were reported from centers across North America, Europe, and Asia. All subjects were receiving high doses (median IgG dose: 1200 mg/kg/month) of supplemental immunoglobulin therapy. Fifty-three percent had a complete absence of B cells (median B-cell count 0; range 0-139 cells/µL). Common Variable Immune Deficiency (CVID) subjects manifested a unique phenotype with B-cell lymphopenia, non O+ blood type, and villous atrophy (logistic regression model, P = 0.01). Five subjects died, all of whom had no evidence of villous atrophy. CONCLUSION: While Norovirus (NoV) is thought to replicate in B cells, in this PIDD cohort of CNI, B-cell lymphopenia was common, indicating that the presence of B lymphocytes is not essential for CNI.

Clinical and laboratory features of seventy-eight UK patients with Good's syndrome (thymoma and hypogammaglobulinaemia).

Good's syndrome (thymoma and hypogammaglobulinaemia) is a rare secondary immunodeficiency disease, previously reported in the published literature as mainly individual cases or small case series. We use the national UK-Primary Immune Deficiency (UKPID) registry to identify a large cohort of patients in the UK with this PID to review its clinical course, natural history and prognosis. Clinical information, laboratory data, treatment and outcome were collated and analysed. Seventy-eight patients with a median age of 64 years, 59% of whom were female, were reviewed. Median age of presentation was 54 years. Absolute B cell numbers and serum immunoglobulins were very low in all patients and all received immunoglobulin replacement therapy. All patients had undergone thymectomy and nine (12%) had thymic carcinoma (four locally invasive and five had disseminated disease) requiring adjuvant radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy. CD4 T cells were significantly lower in these patients with malignant thymoma. Seventy-four (95%) presented with infections, 35 (45%) had bronchiectasis, seven (9%) chronic sinusitis, but only eight (10%) had serious invasive fungal or viral infections. Patients with AB-type thymomas were more likely to have bronchiectasis. Twenty (26%) suffered from autoimmune diseases (pure red cell aplasia, hypothyroidism, arthritis, myasthenia gravis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren's syndrome). There was no association between thymoma type and autoimmunity. Seven (9%) patients had died. Good's syndrome is associated with significant morbidity relating to infectious and autoimmune complications. Prospective studies are required to understand why some patients with thymoma develop persistent hypogammaglobulinaemia.

The United Kingdom Primary Immune Deficiency (UKPID) registry 2012 to 2017.

This is the second report of the United Kingdom Primary Immunodeficiency (UKPID) registry. The registry will be a decade old in 2018 and, as of August 2017, had recruited 4758 patients encompassing 97% of immunology centres within the United Kingdom. This represents a doubling of recruitment into the registry since we reported on 2229 patients included in our first report of 2013. Minimum PID prevalence in the United Kingdom is currently 5·90/100 000 and an average incidence of PID between 1980 and 2000 of 7·6 cases per 100 000 UK live births. Data are presented on the frequency of diseases recorded, disease prevalence, diagnostic delay and treatment modality, including haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) and gene therapy. The registry provides valuable information to clinicians, researchers, service commissioners and industry alike on PID within the United Kingdom, which may not otherwise be available without the existence of a well-established registry.

Correction to: Secondary antibody deficiency: a complication of anti-CD20 therapy for neuroinflammation.

In the original article, the co-author's family name has been published incorrectly. The correct family name should be Constantinescu.

Secondary antibody deficiency: a complication of anti-CD20 therapy for neuroinflammation.

B-cell depleting anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody therapies are being increasingly used as long-term maintenance therapy for neuroinflammatory disease compared to many non-neurological diseases where they are used as remission-inducing agents. While hypogammaglobulinaemia is known to occur in over half of patients treated with medium to long-term B-cell-depleting therapy (in our cohort IgG 38, IgM 56 and IgA 18%), the risk of infections it poses seems to be under-recognised. Here, we report five cases of serious infections associated with hypogammaglobulinaemia occurring in patients receiving rituximab for neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Sixty-four per cent of the whole cohort of patients studied had hypogammaglobulinemia. We discuss the implications of these cases to the wider use of anti-CD20 therapy in neuroinflammatory disease.

Measurement of Typhi Vi antibodies can be used to assess adaptive immunity in patients with immunodeficiency.

Vaccine-specific antibody responses are essential in the diagnosis of antibody deficiencies. Responses to Pneumovax II are used to assess the response to polysaccharide antigens, but interpretation may be complicated. Typhim Vi® , a polysaccharide vaccine for Salmonella typhoid fever, may be an additional option for assessing humoral responses in patients suspected of having an immunodeficiency. Here we report a UK multi-centre study describing the analytical and clinical performance of a Typhi Vi immunoglobulin (Ig)G enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) calibrated to an affinity-purified Typhi Vi IgG preparation. Intra- and interassay imprecision was low and the assay was linear, between 7·4 and 574 U/ml (slope = 0·99-1·00; R2  > 0·99); 71% of blood donors had undetectable Typhi Vi IgG antibody concentrations. Of those with antibody concentrations  > 7·4 U/ml, the concentration range was 7·7-167 U/ml. In antibody-deficient patients receiving antibody replacement therapy the median Typhi Vi IgG antibody concentrations were  < 25 U/ml. In vaccinated normal healthy volunteers, the median concentration post-vaccination was 107 U/ml (range 31-542 U/ml). Eight of eight patients (100%) had post-vaccination concentration increases of at least threefold and six of eight (75%) of at least 10-fold. In an antibody-deficient population (n = 23), only 30% had post-vaccination concentration increases of at least threefold and 10% of at least 10-fold. The antibody responses to Pneumovax II and Typhim Vi® correlated. We conclude that IgG responses to Typhim Vi® vaccination can be measured using the VaccZyme Salmonella typhi Vi IgG ELISA, and that measurement of these antibodies maybe a useful additional test to accompany Pneumovax II responses for the assessment of antibody deficiencies.

Bronchiectasis and deteriorating lung function in agammaglobulinaemia despite immunoglobulin replacement therapy.

Immunoglobulin replacement therapy enhances survival and reduces infection risk in patients with agammaglobulinaemia. We hypothesized that despite regular immunoglobulin therapy, some patients will experience ongoing respiratory infections and develop progressive bronchiectasis with deteriorating lung function. One hundred and thirty-nine (70%) of 199 patients aged 1-80 years from nine cities in the United Kingdom with agammaglobulinaemia currently listed on the UK Primary Immune Deficiency (UKPID) registry were recruited into this retrospective case study and their clinical and laboratory features analysed; 94% were male, 78% of whom had Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK) gene mutations. All patients were on immunoglobulin replacement therapy and 52% had commenced therapy by the time they were 2 years old. Sixty per cent were also taking prophylactic oral antibiotics; 56% of patients had radiological evidence of bronchiectasis, which developed between the ages of 7 and 45 years. Multivariate analysis showed that three factors were associated significantly with bronchiectasis: reaching 18 years old [relative risk (RR) = 14·2, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 2·7-74·6], history of pneumonia (RR = 3·9, 95% CI = 1·1-13·8) and intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) rather than subcutaneous immunoglobulin (SCIG) = (RR = 3·5, 95% CI = 1·2-10·1), while starting immunoglobulin replacement after reaching 2 years of age, gender and recent serum IgG concentration were not associated significantly. Independent of age, patients with bronchiectasis had significantly poorer lung function [predicted forced expiratory volume in 1 s 74% (50-91)] than those without this complication [92% (84-101)] (P < 0·001). We conclude that despite immunoglobulin replacement therapy, many patients with agammaglobulinaemia can develop chronic lung disease and progressive impairment of lung function.

Screening protocols to monitor respiratory status in primary immunodeficiency disease: findings from a European survey and subclinical infection working group.

Many patients with primary immunodeficiency (PID) who have antibody deficiency develop progressive lung disease due to underlying subclinical infection and inflammation. To understand how these patients are monitored we conducted a retrospective survey based on patient records of 13 PID centres across Europe, regarding the care of 1061 adult and 178 paediatric patients with PID on immunoglobulin (Ig) G replacement. The most common diagnosis was common variable immunodeficiency in adults (75%) and hypogammaglobulinaemia in children (39%). The frequency of clinic visits varied both within and between centres: every 1-12 months for adult patients and every 3-6 months for paediatric patients. Patients diagnosed with lung diseases were more likely to receive pharmaceutical therapies and received a wider range of therapies than patients without lung disease. Variation existed between centres in the frequency with which some clinical and laboratory monitoring tests are performed, including exercise tests, laboratory testing for IgG subclass levels and specific antibodies, and lung function tests such as spirometry. Some tests were carried out more frequently in adults than in children, probably due to difficulties conducting these tests in younger children. The percentage of patients seen regularly by a chest physician, or who had microbiology tests performed following chest and sinus exacerbations, also varied widely between centres. Our survey revealed a great deal of variation across Europe in how frequently patients with PID visit the clinic and how frequently some monitoring tests are carried out. These results highlight the urgent need for consensus guidelines on how to monitor lung complications in PID patients.

When to initiate immunoglobulin replacement therapy (IGRT) in antibody deficiency: a practical approach.

Primary antibody deficiencies (PAD) constitute the majority of all primary immunodeficiency diseases (PID) and immunoglobulin replacement forms the mainstay of therapy for many patients in this category. Secondary antibody deficiencies (SAD) represent a larger and expanding number of patients resulting from the use of a wide range of immunosuppressive therapies, in particular those targeting B cells, and may also result from renal or gastrointestinal immunoglobulin losses. While there are clear similarities between primary and secondary antibody deficiencies, there are also significant differences. This review describes a practical approach to the clinical, laboratory and radiological assessment of patients with antibody deficiency, focusing on the factors that determine whether or not immunoglobulin replacement should be used. The decision to treat is more straightforward when defined diagnostic criteria for some of the major PADs, such as common variable immunodeficiency disorders (CVID) or X-linked agammaglobulinaemia (XLA), are fulfilled or, indeed, when there is a very low level of immunoglobulin production in association with an increased frequency of severe or recurrent infections in SAD. However, the presentation of many patients is less clear-cut and represents a considerable challenge in terms of the decision whether or not to treat and the best way in which to assess the outcome of therapy. This decision is important, not least to improve individual quality of life and reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with recurrent infections but also to avoid inappropriate exposure to blood products and to ensure that immunoglobulin, a costly and limited resource, is used to maximal benefit.

FDG PET-CT imaging of therapeutic response in granulomatous lymphocytic interstitial lung disease (GLILD) in common variable immunodeficiency (CVID).

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is the most common severe adult primary immunodeficiency and is characterized by a failure to produce antibodies leading to recurrent predominantly sinopulmonary infections. Improvements in the prevention and treatment of infection with immunoglobulin replacement and antibiotics have resulted in malignancy, autoimmune, inflammatory and lymphoproliferative disorders emerging as major clinical challenges in the management of patients who have CVID. In a proportion of CVID patients, inflammation manifests as granulomas that frequently involve the lungs, lymph nodes, spleen and liver and may affect almost any organ. Granulomatous lymphocytic interstitial lung disease (GLILD) is associated with a worse outcome. Its underlying pathogenic mechanisms are poorly understood and there is limited evidence to inform how best to monitor, treat or select patients to treat. We describe the use of combined 2-[(18)F]-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose positron emission tomography and computed tomography (FDG PET-CT) scanning for the assessment and monitoring of response to treatment in a patient with GLILD. This enabled a synergistic combination of functional and anatomical imaging in GLILD and demonstrated a widespread and high level of metabolic activity in the lungs and lymph nodes. Following treatment with rituximab and mycophenolate there was almost complete resolution of the previously identified high metabolic activity alongside significant normalization in lymph node size and lung architecture. The results support the view that GLILD represents one facet of a multi-systemic metabolically highly active lymphoproliferative disorder and suggests potential utility of this imaging modality in this subset of patients with CVID.

Efficacy, safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of a novel human immune globulin subcutaneous, 20%: a Phase 2/3 study in Europe in patients with primary immunodeficiencies.

A highly concentrated (20%) immunoglobulin (Ig)G preparation for subcutaneous administration (IGSC 20%), would offer a new option for antibody replacement therapy in patients with primary immunodeficiency diseases (PIDD). The efficacy, safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of IGSC 20% were evaluated in a prospective trial in Europe in 49 patients with PIDD aged 2-67 years. Over a median of 358 days, patients received 2349 IGSC 20% infusions at monthly doses equivalent to those administered for previous intravenous or subcutaneous IgG treatment. The rate of validated acute bacterial infections (VASBIs) was significantly lower than 1 per year (0·022/patient-year, P < 0·0001); the rate of all infections was 4·38/patient-year. Median trough IgG concentrations were ≥ 8 g/l. There was no serious adverse event (AE) deemed related to IGSC 20% treatment; related non-serious AEs occurred at a rate of 0·101 event/infusion. The incidence of local related AEs was 0·069 event/infusion (0·036 event/infusion, when excluding a 13-year-old patient who reported 79 of 162 total related local AEs). The incidence of related systemic AEs was 0·032 event/infusion. Most related AEs were mild, none were severe. For 64·6% of patients and in 94·8% of IGSC 20% infusions, no local related AE occurred. The median infusion duration was 0·95 (range = 0·3-4·1) h using mainly one to two administration sites [median = 2 sites (range = 1-5)]. Almost all infusions (99·8%) were administered without interruption/stopping or rate reduction. These results demonstrate that IGSC 20% provides an effective and well-tolerated therapy for patients previously on intravenous or subcutaneous treatment, without the need for dose adjustment.

European Guidelines (S1) on the use of high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin in dermatology.

BACKGROUND: The treatment of severe dermatological autoimmune diseases and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) with high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) is a well-established procedure in dermatology. As treatment with IVIg is usually considered for rare clinical entities or severe clinical cases, the use of immunoglobulin is not generally based on data from randomized controlled trials that are usually required for the practice of evidence-based medicine. Owing to the rarity of the indications for the use of IVIg, it is also unlikely that such studies will be available in the foreseeable future. Because the high costs of IVIg treatment also limit its first-line use, the first clinical guidelines on its use in dermatological conditions were established in 2008 and renewed in 2011. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The European guidelines presented here were prepared by a panel of experts nominated by the EDF and the EADV. The guidelines were developed to update the indications for treatment currently considered as effective and to summarize the evidence base for the use of IVIg in dermatological autoimmune diseases and TEN. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The current guidelines represent consensual expert opinions and definitions on the use of IVIg reflecting current published evidence and are intended to serve as a decision-making tool for the use of IVIg in dermatological diseases.

[Recurrent meningitis and inherited complement deficiency]. / Recidivující meningitidy a vrozený deficit komplementového systému.

Complement deficiency represents 5% of primary immunodeficiencies worldwide. A total of seven patients with deficiencies of the classical complement pathway were reported in the Czech Republic by the end of 2015. Typical manifestations of complement deficiency are recurrent meningitis, other bacterial infections, autoimmunity and kidney disease.Two case reports are presented of patients with molecularly confirmed C7 (compound heterozygote, c.663_644del in exon 6 and c.2350+2T:>C in intron 16) and C8 (homozygous c.1282C>T in exon 9) deficiency. The first patient had four attacks of meningococcal meningitis and an episode of pneumonia of unknown aetiology in childhood. The second had six attacks of meningitis. He also suffered from recurrent infections (otitis media, tonsillitis, chronic mucopurulent rhinitis and subsequent pansinusitis complicated by nasal polyposis) since childhood. No autoimmune disease was documented in either patient. They both received meningococcal and pneumococcal vaccines. Antibiotic prophylaxis was used only in the second patient, leading to a decline in the number of ENT infections.Complement deficiency should be suspected in patients with recurrent meningococcal infections, especially if combined with other infections caused by encapsulated bacteria or autoimmunity diseases. Prophylaxis with conjugate polysaccharide vaccines is recommended and antibiotic prophylaxis should be considered in individual cases.

Evaluation of a novel automated allergy microarray platform compared with three other allergy test methods.

Microarray platforms, enabling simultaneous measurement of many allergens with a small serum sample, are potentially powerful tools in allergy diagnostics. We report here the first study comparing a fully automated microarray system, the Microtest allergy system, with a manual microarray platform, Immuno-Solid phase Allergen Chip (ISAC), and two well-established singleplex allergy tests, skin prick test (SPT) and ImmunoCAP, all tested on the same patients. One hundred and three adult allergic patients attending the allergy clinic were included into the study. All patients were tested with four allergy test methods (SPT, ImmunoCAP, Microtest and ISAC 112) and a total of 3485 pairwise test results were analysed and compared. The four methods showed comparable results with a positive/negative agreement of 81-88% for any pair of test methods compared, which is in line with data in the literature. The most prevalent allergens (cat, dog, mite, timothy, birch and peanut) and their individual allergen components revealed an agreement between methods with correlation coefficients between 0·73 and 0·95. All four methods revealed deviating individual patient results for a minority of patients. These results indicate that microarray platforms are efficient and useful tools to characterize the specific immunoglobulin (Ig)E profile of allergic patients using a small volume of serum sample. The results produced by the Microtest system were in agreement with diagnostic tests in current use. Further data collection and evaluation are needed for other populations, geographical regions and allergens.

Clinical and laboratory correlates of lung disease and cancer in adults with idiopathic hypogammaglobulinaemia.

Idiopathic hypogammaglobulinaemia, including common variable immune deficiency (CVID), has a heterogeneous clinical phenotype. This study used data from the national UK Primary Immune Deficiency (UKPID) registry to examine factors associated with adverse outcomes, particularly lung damage and malignancy. A total of 801 adults labelled with idiopathic hypogammaglobulinaemia and CVID aged 18-96 years from 10 UK cities were recruited using the UKPID registry database. Clinical and laboratory data (leucocyte numbers and serum immunoglobulin concentrations) were collated and analysed using uni- and multivariate statistics. Low serum immunoglobulin (Ig)G pre-immunoglobulin replacement therapy was the key factor associated with lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) and history of LRTI was the main factor associated with bronchiectasis. History of overt LRTI was also associated with a significantly shorter delay in diagnosis and commencing immunoglobulin replacement therapy [5 (range 1-13 years) versus 9 (range 2-24) years]. Patients with bronchiectasis started immunoglobulin replacement therapy significantly later than those without this complication [7 (range 2-22) years versus 5 (range 1-13) years]. Patients with a history of LRTI had higher serum IgG concentrations on therapy and were twice as likely to be on prophylactic antibiotics. Ensuring prompt commencement of immunoglobulin therapy in patients with idiopathic hypogammaglobulinaemia is likely to help prevent LRTI and subsequent bronchiectasis. Cancer was the only factor associated with mortality. Overt cancer, both haematological and non-haematological, was associated with significantly lower absolute CD8(+) T cell but not natural killer (NK) cell numbers, raising the question as to what extent immune senescence, particularly of CD8(+) T cells, might contribute to the increased risk of cancers as individuals age.

Facilitated subcutaneous immunoglobulin (fSCIg) therapy--practical considerations.

There is an increasing range of therapeutic options for primary antibody-deficient patients who require replacement immunoglobulin. These include intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg), subcutaneous immunoglobulin (SCIg), rapid push SCIg and most recently recombinant human hyaluronidase-facilitated SCIg (fSCIg). Advantages of fSCIg include fewer needle punctures, longer infusion intervals and an improved adverse effect profile relative to IVIg. Limited real-life experience exists concerning the practical aspects of switching or starting patients on fSCIg. We describe the first 14 patients who have been treated with fSCIg at the Immunodeficiency Centre for Wales (ICW), representing more than 6 patient-years of experience. The regimen was well tolerated, with high levels of satisfaction and no increase in training requirement, including for a treatment-naive patient. Two patients discontinued fSCIg due to pain and swelling at the infusion site, and one paused therapy following post-infusion migraines. Ultrasound imaging of paired conventional and facilitated SCIg demonstrated clear differences in subcutaneous space distribution associated with a 10-fold increase in rate and volume delivery with fSCIg. Patient profiles for those choosing fSCIg fell into two main categories: those experiencing clinical problems with their current treatment and those seeking greater convenience and flexibility. When introducing fSCIg, consideration of the type and programming of infusion pump, needle gauge and length, infusion site, up-dosing schedule, home training and patient information are important, as these may differ from conventional SCIg. This paper provides guidance on practical aspects of the administration, training and outcomes to help inform decision-making for this new treatment modality.