Emerging and legacy contaminants in common minke whale from the Barents sea.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including brominated flame retardants (BFRs), perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and metals, can accumulate in marine mammals and be transferred to offspring. In this study, we analyzed 64 lipophilic POPs, including four emerging BFRs, in the blubber, liver and muscle of 17 adult common minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) from the Barents Sea to investigate occurrence and tissue partitioning. In addition, the placental transfer concentration ratios of 14 PFAS and 17 metals were quantified in the muscle of nine female-fetus pairs to investigate placental transfer. Legacy lipophilic POPs were the dominating compound group in every tissue, and we observed generally lower levels compared to previous studies from 1992 to 2001. We detected the emerging BFRs hexabromobenzene (HBB) and pentabromotoluene (PBT), but in low levels compared to the legacy POPs. We detected nine PFAS, and levels of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were higher than detected from the same population in 2011, whilst levels of Hg were comparable to 2011. Levels of lipophilic contaminants were higher in blubber compared to muscle and liver on both a wet weight and lipid adjusted basis, but tissue partitioning of the emerging BFRs could not be determined due to the high number of samples below the limit of detection. The highest muscle ΣPFAS levels were quantified in fetuses (23 ± 8.7 ng/g ww), followed by adult males (7.2 ± 2.0 ng/gg ww) and adult females (4.5 ± 1.1 ng/g ww), showing substantial placental transfer from mother to fetus. In contrast, Hg levels in the fetus were lower than the mother. Levels were under thresholds for risk of health effects in the whales. This study is the first to report occurrence and placental transfer of emerging contaminants in common minke whales from the Barents Sea, contributing valuable new data on pollutant levels in Arctic wildlife.

Evolution of the recombination regulator PRDM9 in minke whales.

BACKGROUND: PRDM9 is a key regulator of meiotic recombination in most metazoans, responsible for reshuffling parental genomes. During meiosis, the PRDM9 protein recognizes and binds specific target motifs via its array of C2H2 zinc-fingers encoded by a rapidly evolving minisatellite. The gene coding for PRDM9 is the only speciation gene identified in vertebrates to date and shows high variation, particularly in the DNA-recognizing positions of the zinc-finger array, within and between species. Across all vertebrate genomes studied for PRDM9 evolution, only one genome lacks variability between repeat types - that of the North Pacific minke whale. This study aims to understand the evolution and diversity of Prdm9 in minke whales, which display the most unusual genome reference allele of Prdm9 so far discovered in mammals. RESULTS: Minke whales possess all the features characteristic of PRDM9-directed recombination, including complete KRAB, SSXRD and SET domains and a rapidly evolving array of C2H2-type-Zincfingers (ZnF) with evidence of rapid evolution, particularly at DNA-recognizing positions that evolve under positive diversifying selection. Seventeen novel PRDM9 variants were identified within the Antarctic minke whale species, plus a single distinct PRDM9 variant in Common minke whales - shared across North Atlantic and North Pacific minke whale subspecies boundaries. CONCLUSION: The PRDM9 ZnF array evolves rapidly, in minke whales, with at least one DNA-recognizing position under positive selection. Extensive PRDM9 diversity is observed, particularly in the Antarctic in minke whales. Common minke whales shared a specific Prdm9 allele across subspecies boundaries, suggesting incomplete speciation by the mechanisms associated with PRDM9 hybrid sterility.

Meningoencephalitis in a common minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata associated with Brucella pinnipedialis and gamma-herpesvirus infection.

Fatal marine Brucella infections with histologic lesions specific to the central nervous system (CNS), known as neurobrucellosis, have been described in 5 species of odontocete cetaceans in the UK: striped dolphins Stenella coeruleoalba, Atlantic white-sided dolphins Lagenorhynchus acutus, short-beaked common dolphins Delphinus delphis, long-finned pilot whale Globicephala melas and Sowerby's beaked whale Mesoplodon bidens. To date, these CNS lesions have only been associated with Brucella ceti ST26 and not with B. pinnipedialis, which is rarely isolated from cetaceans and, although commonly found in various seal species, has never been associated with any pathology. This paper describes the first report of neurobrucellosis in a common minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata which was associated with the isolation of Brucella pinnipedialis ST24 and co-infection with Balaenoptera acutorostrata gamma-herpesvirus 2. This is the first report of neurobrucellosis in any species of mysticete and the first report of Brucella pinnipedialis in association with any pathology in any species of marine mammal, which may be due to co-infection with a herpesvirus, as these are known to be associated with immunosuppression.

Distribution of microbiota across different intestinal tract segments of a stranded dwarf minke whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata.

Marine mammals are an important part of ocean ecosystems, of which, whales play a vital role in the marine food chain. In this study, the mucosa and contents from different intestinal tract segments (ITSs) of a stranded dwarf minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) were analyzed. The gut microbiota were sequenced using high-throughput sequencing technology, based on a 16S rRNA approach. The microbial composition of the intestinal mucosa and its contents were similar in every single ITS. Large intestine microbiota richness and diversity were significantly higher when compared to the duodenum and jejunum. The dominant bacteria in the gut were Firmicutes and Actinobacteria; the former was enriched in the large intestine, whereas the latter was more abundant in the duodenum and jejunum. Our findings provide novel insights for microbiota in B. acutorostrata.

Deiminated proteins and extracellular vesicles - Novel serum biomarkers in whales and orca.

Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are a family of phylogenetically conserved calcium-dependent enzymes which cause post-translational protein deimination. This can result in neoepitope generation, affect gene regulation and allow for protein moonlighting via functional and structural changes in target proteins. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) carry cargo proteins and genetic material and are released from cells as part of cellular communication. EVs are found in most body fluids where they can be useful biomarkers for assessment of health status. Here, serum-derived EVs were profiled, and post-translationally deiminated proteins and EV-related microRNAs are described in 5 ceataceans: minke whale, fin whale, humpback whale, Cuvier's beaked whale and orca. EV-serum profiles were assessed by transmission electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis. EV profiles varied between the 5 species and were identified to contain deiminated proteins and selected key inflammatory and metabolic microRNAs. A range of proteins, critical for immune responses and metabolism were identified to be deiminated in cetacean sera, with some shared KEGG pathways of deiminated proteins relating to immunity and physiology, while some KEGG pathways were species-specific. This is the first study to characterise and profile EVs and to report deiminated proteins and putative effects of protein-protein interaction networks via such post-translationald deimination in cetaceans, revealing key immune and metabolic factors to undergo this post-translational modification. Deiminated proteins and EVs profiles may possibly be developed as new biomarkers for assessing health status of sea mammals.

Mandibular shape in farmed Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) exposed to persistent organic pollutants.

We investigated if dietary exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) affect mandibular asymmetry and periodontal disease in paired male-siblings of Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus). During ontogeny, one group of siblings was exposed to the complexed POP mixture in naturally contaminated minke whale (Balaenoptere acutorostarta) blubber (n = 10), while another group was given wet feed based on pig (Sus scrofa) fat as a control (n = 11). The ∑POP concentrations were 802 ng/g ww in the whale-based feed compared to 24 ng/g ww in the control diet. We conducted a two-dimensional geometric morphometric (GM) analysis of mandibular shape and asymmetry in the foxes and compared the two groups. The analyses showed that directional asymmetry was higher than fluctuating asymmetry in both groups and that mandibular shape differed significantly between the exposed and control group based on discriminant function analysis (T2 = 58.52, p = 0.04, 1000 permutations). We also found a non-significantly higher incidence of periodontal disease (two-way ANOVA: p = 0.43) and greater severity of sub-canine alveolar bone deterioration similar to periodontitis (two-way ANOVA: p = 0.3) in the POP-exposed group. Based on these results, it is possible that dietary exposure to a complexed POP mixture lead to changes in jaw morphology in Arctic foxes. This study suggests that extrinsic factors, such as dietary exposure to POPs, may affect mandibular shape and health in a way that could be harmful to wild Arctic populations. Therefore, further studies using GM analysis as an alternative to traditional morphometric methods should be conducted for wild Arctic fox populations exposed to environmental contaminants.

Cold-pressed minke whale oil reduces circulating LDL/VLDL-cholesterol, lipid oxidation and atherogenesis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice fed a Western-type diet for 13 weeks.

BACKGROUND: Long-chain n3-polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC n3-PUFA) are well known for their anti-inflammatory activity and their impact on cardiovascular disease. Cold-pressed whale oil (CWO) has half the amount of LC n3-PUFA compared to cod liver oil (CLO). Still, there has been observed more pronounced beneficial effects on cardiovascular disease markers from intake of CWO compared to intake of CLO in human intervention studies. Extracts from CWO deprived of fatty acids have also been shown to display antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro. The aim of this study was to investigate whether intake of a high-fat Western-type diet (WD) supplemented with CWO would prevent the development of atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice. METHODS: Seventy female ApoE-/- mice were fed a WD containing 1% CWO, CLO or corn oil (CO). Atherosclerotic lesion formation, body and tissue weights, hepatic gene expression together with serum levels of LDL/VLDL-cholesterol, ox-LDL, total antioxidant status and various serum cardiovascular disease/proinflammatory markers were evaluated. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS, and Shapiro-Wilk's test was performed to determine the distribution of the variables. Statistical difference was assessed using One-Way ANOVA with Tukeys' post hoc test or Kruskal-Wallis test. The hepatic relative gene expression was analysed with REST 2009 (V2.0.13). RESULTS: Mice fed CWO had less atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic arch compared to mice fed CO. Levels of LDL/VLDL-cholesterol and ox-LDL-cholesterol were also markedly reduced whereas total antioxidant levels were enhanced in mice fed CWO compared to CO-fed mice. In addition, CWO-fed mice gained less weight and several hepatic genes involved in the cholesterol metabolism were up-regulated compared to CO-fed mice. CONCLUSION: In the present study mice fed a WD supplemented with 1% CWO had reduced formation of atherosclerotic lesions in the aortic arch, reduced serum LDL/VLDL-cholesterol and ox-LDL-cholesterol, increased serum total antioxidant status and reduced body weight compared to mice fed a WD supplemented with 1% CO.

Avoidance responses of minke whales to 1-4kHz naval sonar.

Minke whales are difficult to study and little information exists regarding their responses to anthropogenic sound. This study pools data from behavioural response studies off California and Norway. Data are derived from four tagged animals, of which one from each location was exposed to naval sonar signals. Statistical analyses were conducted using Mahalanobis distance to compare overall changes in parameters summarising dive behaviour, avoidance behaviour, and potential energetic costs of disturbance. Our quantitative analysis showed that both animals initiated avoidance behaviour, but responses were not associated with unusual dive behaviour. In one exposed animal the avoidance of the sonar source included a 5-fold increase in horizontal speed away from the source, implying a significant increase in metabolic rate. Despite the different environmental settings and exposure contexts, clear changes in behaviour were observed providing the first insights into the nature of responses to human noise for this wide-ranging species.

Brucella ceti Infection in a Common Minke Whale ( Balaenoptera acutorostrata ) with Associated Pathology.

There are three major lineages of marine mammal strains of Brucella spp.: Brucella ceti ST23, found predominantly in porpoises; B. ceti ST26, in pelagic delphinids and ziphiids; and Brucella pinnipedialis ST24/25, predominantly in seals. The isolation of Brucella spp. in mysticetes has been described only in common minke whales ( Balaenoptera acutorostrata ) in Norway and Scotland. We report a third case of Brucella infection and isolation in a minke whale associated with a large abscess. In contrast to the two previous reports that involved isolates of B. pinnipedialis ST24 or the porpoise-associated B. ceti complex ST23, this case was associated with the dolphin-associated B. ceti ST26. Thus, minke whales can be infected naturally with members of all the distinct major lineages of Brucella associated with marine mammals. This report is unique in that the B. ceti ST26 did not originate from a pelagic delphinid or a beaked whale.

The mitochondrial genome and ribosomal operon of Brachycladium goliath (Digenea: Brachycladiidae) recovered from a stranded minke whale.

Members of the Brachycladiidae are known to cause pathologies implicated in cetacean strandings and it is important to develop accurate diagnostic markers to differentiate these and other helminths found in cetaceans. Brachycladium goliath (van Beneden, 1858) is a large trematode found, as adults, usually in the hepatic (bile) and pancreatic ducts of various cetaceans. Complete sequences were determined for the entire mitochondrial genome, and phylogenetically informative nuclear genes contained within the ribosomal operon, from a small piece of an individual worm taken from a common minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacépède, 1804. Genomic DNA was sequenced using an Illumina MiSeq platform. The mtDNA is 15,229 bp in length consisting of 12 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes and 2 non-coding regions of which the larger is comprised of 4 tandemly repeated units (260 bp each). The ribosomal RNA operon is 9297 bp long. These data provide a rich resource of molecular markers for diagnostics, phylogenetics and population genetics in order to better understand the role, and associated pathology of helminth infections in cetaceans.

Seasonal migrations of North Atlantic minke whales: novel insights from large-scale passive acoustic monitoring networks.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about migration patterns and seasonal distribution away from coastal summer feeding habitats of many pelagic baleen whales. Recently, large-scale passive acoustic monitoring networks have become available to explore migration patterns and identify critical habitats of these species. North Atlantic minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) perform seasonal migrations between high latitude summer feeding and low latitude winter breeding grounds. While the distribution and abundance of the species has been studied across their summer range, data on migration and winter habitat are virtually missing. Acoustic recordings, from 16 different sites from across the North Atlantic, were analyzed to examine the seasonal and geographic variation in minke whale pulse train occurrence, infer information about migration routes and timing, and to identify possible winter habitats. RESULTS: Acoustic detections show that minke whales leave their winter grounds south of 30° N from March through early April. On their southward migration in autumn, minke whales leave waters north of 40° N from mid-October through early November. In the western North Atlantic spring migrants appear to track the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream along the continental shelf, while whales travel farther offshore in autumn. Abundant detections were found off the southeastern US and the Caribbean during winter. Minke whale pulse trains showed evidence of geographic variation, with longer pulse trains recorded south of 40° N. Very few pulse trains were recorded during summer in any of the datasets. CONCLUSION: This study highlights the feasibility of using acoustic monitoring networks to explore migration patterns of pelagic marine mammals. Results confirm the presence of minke whales off the southeastern US and the Caribbean during winter months. The absence of pulse train detections during summer suggests either that minke whales switch their vocal behaviour at this time of year, are absent from available recording sites or that variation in signal structure influenced automated detection. Alternatively, if pulse trains are produced in a reproductive context by males, these data may indicate their absence from the selected recording sites. Evidence of geographic variation in pulse train duration suggests different behavioural functions or use of these calls at different latitudes.