Predictive processing of music and language in autism: Evidence from Mandarin and English speakers.

Atypical predictive processing has been associated with autism across multiple domains, based mainly on artificial antecedents and consequents. As structured sequences where expectations derive from implicit learning of combinatorial principles, language and music provide naturalistic stimuli for investigating predictive processing. In this study, we matched melodic and sentence stimuli in cloze probabilities and examined musical and linguistic prediction in Mandarin- (Experiment 1) and English-speaking (Experiment 2) autistic and non-autistic individuals using both production and perception tasks. In the production tasks, participants listened to unfinished melodies/sentences and then produced the final notes/words to complete these items. In the perception tasks, participants provided expectedness ratings of the completed melodies/sentences based on the most frequent notes/words in the norms. While Experiment 1 showed intact musical prediction but atypical linguistic prediction in autism in the Mandarin sample that demonstrated imbalanced musical training experience and receptive vocabulary skills between groups, the group difference disappeared in a more closely matched sample of English speakers in Experiment 2. These findings suggest the importance of taking an individual differences approach when investigating predictive processing in music and language in autism, as the difficulty in prediction in autism may not be due to generalized problems with prediction in any type of complex sequence processing.

Sentence-final completion norms for 2925 Mexican Spanish sentence contexts.

Sentence-final completion tasks serve as valuable tools in studying language processing and the associated predictive mechanisms. There are several established sentence-completion norms for languages like English, Portuguese, French, and Spanish, each tailored to the language it was designed for and evaluated in. Yet, cultural variations among native speakers of the same language complicate the claim of a universal application of these norms. In this study, we developed a corpus of 2925 sentence-completion norms specifically for Mexican Spanish. This corpus is distinctive for several reasons: Firstly, it is the most comprehensive set of sentence-completion norms for Mexican Spanish to date. Secondly, it offers a substantial range of experimental stimuli with considerable variability in terms of the predictability of word sentence completion (cloze probability/surprisal) and the level of uncertainty inherent in the sentence context (entropy). Thirdly, the syntactic complexity of the sentences in the corpus is varied, as are the characteristics of the final word nouns (including aspects of concreteness/abstractness, length, and frequency). This paper details the generation of the sentence contexts, explains the methodology employed for data collection from a total of 1470 participants, and outlines the approach to data analysis for the establishment of sentence-completion norms. These norms provide a significant contribution to fields such as linguistics, cognitive science, and machine learning, among others, by enhancing our understanding of language, predictive mechanisms, knowledge representation, and context representation. The collected data is accessible through the Open Science Framework (OSF) at the following link: https://osf.io/js359/?view_only=bb1b328d37d643df903ed69bb2405ac0 .

Revisiting the effect of text complexity on Continuous Discourse Tracking using synthetic speech: Old tricks with new dogs.

Continuous Discourse Tracking (CDT) is a functional test of speech perceptual ability, which has been criticised on account of the procedural variation inherent in the method. This study sought to reduce this variation by using synthetic speech, which was subsequently vocoded to simulate listening with a cochlear implant. We also assessed the complexity of three text excerpts with auditory (n = 10) and written Cloze tests (n = 10). These same passages were used in an auditory-only CDT experiment (n = 12) performed with the synthetic-vocoded material. Mean tracking rates were lower, and the number of blockages was higher for the most difficult text as determined by the Cloze results. We also noted some anomalous realisations from the speech synthesis, but these were unlikely to have contributed to the differences in tracking rates that were observed for text complexity. These results show that Cloze testing is suitable to predict text complexity for CDT performed with synthesised speech. Furthermore, they indicate that the use of text-speech synthesis is viable and may be a useful addition to rehabilitation where functional measures are used to assess communication aptitude.

Does negation influence the choice of sentence continuations? Evidence from a four-choice cloze task.

Event plausibility facilitates the processing of affirmative sentences, but little is known about how it affects negative sentences. In six behavioural experiments, we investigated negation's impact on the choice of sentence continuations that differ with respect to event plausibility. In a four-choice cloze task, participants saw affirmative and negative sentence fragments (The child will [not] eat the . . .) in combination with four potential continuations: yoghurt (a plausible word), shellfish (a weak world knowledge violating word), branch (a severe world knowledge violating word), and minivan (a word resulting in a semantic violation). Across all experiments the plausible word was highly preferred in both affirmative and negative sentences. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 while ruling out the possibility that the lack of effect of negation in Experiment 1 stemmed from participants not fully processing the negation. Experiment 3 showed that the observed plausibility effects can be generalised to other aspectual forms (The child has [not] eaten the yoghurt). Experiment 4 ruled out the possibility that the choices were mainly driven by lexical associations and additionally suggested a role for informativity. Experiment 5 replicated Experiment 4 and reinforced the general pattern according to which negative sentences express the denial of plausible positive events. Experiment 6 provided evidence that informativity might be driving patterns of choices in the negative sentences. All in all, these findings suggest that upcoming continuations are chosen to maximise the plausibility of the event in the affirmative sentences and to deny that event in the negative sentences. The observed plausibility effects do not seem to be modulated by the internal representation of events, but they can be modulated by changes to the expected informativity of the sentence.

Cloze probability, predictability ratings, and computational estimates for 205 English sentences, aligned with existing EEG and reading time data.

We release a database of cloze probability values, predictability ratings, and computational estimates for a sample of 205 English sentences (1726 words), aligned with previously released word-by-word reading time data (both self-paced reading and eye-movement records; Frank et al., Behavior Research Methods, 45(4), 1182-1190. 2013) and EEG responses (Frank et al., Brain and Language, 140, 1-11. 2015). Our analyses show that predictability ratings are the best predictors of the EEG signal (N400, P600, LAN) self-paced reading times, and eye movement patterns, when spillover effects are taken into account. The computational estimates are particularly effective at explaining variance in the eye-tracking data without spillover. Cloze probability estimates have decent overall psychometric accuracy and are the best predictors of early fixation patterns (first fixation duration). Our results indicate that the choice of the best measurement of word predictability in context critically depends on the processing index being considered.

Proficiency versus lexical processing efficiency as a measure of L2 lexical quality: Individual differences in word-frequency effects in L2 visual word recognition.

This study investigated Korean-English second language (L2) speakers' recognition of high- and low-frequency English words and compared two individual difference measures in their role of representing lexical quality in L2: cloze test scores and inverse efficiency scores (IES; response latency corrected for the amount of errors committed), obtained from lexical decision on a separate set of words. Cloze test scores aimed to assess general L2 proficiency, whereas IES was purported to measure lexical processing efficiency. 109 adult Korean-English L2 speakers participated in the study. Results showed significant main effects of word frequency, cloze test scores, and IES on lexical decision times, replicating previous findings and confirming the predictions of the lexical quality hypothesis. Crucially, IES was revealed to be a better measure of individual differences in L2 lexical quality than were cloze test scores. These findings suggest that lexical quality (which can be operationalized in terms of online lexical processing efficiency) comprises a distinct subdomain of language skills on its own, which cannot be measured in full using conventional language proficiency tests.

Filling the gap: Cloze probability and sentence constraint norms for 807 European Portuguese sentences.

Sentence processing is affected by the sentence context and word expectancy. To investigate sentence comprehension experimentally, it is useful to have sentence completion norms with both context constraint and word expectancy measures. In this study, two experiments were conducted to collect norms for completion of 807 European Portuguese sentences. Context constraint was measured through type-token ratio and proportion idiosyncratic responses, while word expectancy was assessed by cloze probability. Besides establishing norms for a large sample of sentences, the study investigated the impact of the production procedure and method of analysis. In Experiment 1, a single-production procedure was used, i.e., participants completed each sentence fragment with only a single response, whereas in Experiment 2, a multiple-production procedure was used, i.e., participants have to provide up to three completion words for each sentence fragment. In Experiment 2, the analyses were obtained using two distinct methods: first-response analysis and combined-response analysis. The results showed that cloze and context measures are comparable between production paradigms and that the results from both analysis methods were correlated. The advantages of each production procedure and analysis method are discussed.

Neural Bases of Predictions During Natural Reading of Known Statements: An Electroencephalography and Eye Movements Co-registration Study.

Predictions of incoming words performed during reading have an impact on how the reader moves their eyes and on the electrical brain potentials. Eye tracking (ET) experiments show that less predictable words are fixated for longer periods of times. Electroencephalography (EEG) experiments show that these words elicit a more negative potential around 400 ms (N400) after the word onset when reading one word at a time (foveated reading). Nevertheless, there was no N400 potential during the foveated reading of previously known sentences (memory-encoded), which suggests that the prediction of words from memory-encoded sentences is based on different mechanisms than predictions performed on common sentences. Here, we performed an ET-EEG co-registration experiment where participants read common and memory-encoded sentences. Our results show that the N400 potential disappear when the reader recognises the sentence. Furthermore, time-frequency analyses show a larger alpha lateralisation and a beta power increase for memory-encoded sentences. This suggests a more distributed attention and an active maintenance of the cognitive set, in concordance to the predictive coding framework.

Programa de intervención con la técnica de cloze: Elaboración y Significancia Clínica / Programa de intervenção com a técnica de cloze: elaboração e significância clínica / Intervention program with the cloze technique: elaboration and clinical significance

RESUMO A hipótese deste estudo está pautada no fato de que um programa de remediação com a Técnica de Cloze, nivelado por diferentes graus de dificuldades, pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento da compreensão leitora de escolares com dificuldades de compreensão leitora. Sendo assim, objetivou-se elaborar este programa e analisar a significância clínica. Para isto, elaborou-se um programa de intervenção por meio de uma revisão bibliográfica e após foi realizado um estudo piloto e aplicado em 28 escolares ensino fundamental I, divididos em Grupo I Estudo (escolares com dificuldade em texto narrativo submetidos à intervenção); Grupo I Controle (escolares com dificuldade em texto narrativo não submetidos à intervenção); Grupo II Estudo (escolares com dificuldade em texto expositivo submetidos à intervenção); Grupo II Controle (escolares com dificuldade em texto expositivo não submetidos à intervenção). Os resultados analisados pelo Método JT apontaram mudança confiável positiva e com significância clínica para escolares do Grupo I Estudo, e de forma significativa para escolares do Grupo II Estudo.

RESUMEN La hipótesis de este estudio está centrada en el hecho de que un programa de remediar con la Técnica de Cloze, nivelado por distintos grados de dificultades, puede contribuir para el desarrollo de la comprensión lectora de escolares con dificultades de comprensión lectora. Por eso, se tuvo por objetivo elaborar este programa y analizar la significancia clínica. Para ello, se elaboró un programa de intervención por intermedio de una revisión bibliográfica y después se realizó un estudio piloto y aplicado en 28 escolares enseñanza básica I, divididos en Grupo I Estudio (escolares con dificultad en texto narrativo sometidos a la intervención); Grupo I Control (escolares con dificultad en texto narrativo no sometidos a la intervención); Grupo II Estudio (escolares con dificultad en texto expositivo sometidos a la intervención); Grupo II Control (escolares con dificultad en texto expositivo no sometidos a la intervención). Los resultados analizados por el Método JT apuntaran cambio fiable positivo y con significancia clínica para escolares del Grupo I Estudio, y de forma significativa para escolares del Grupo II Estudio.

ABSTRACT The hypothesis of this study is based on the fact that a remediation program with the Cloze Technique, leveled by different degrees of difficulties, it can contribute to the development of reading comprehension of students with reading comprehension difficulties. Therefore, the objective was to develop this program and analyze the clinical significance. For this, an intervention program was developed through a bibliographic review and after that a pilot study was carried out and applied in 28 elementary school students, divided into Group I Experimental (students with difficulty in narrative text submitted to the intervention); Group I Control (students with difficulty in narrative text not submitted to the intervention); Group II Experimental (students with difficulty in expository text submitted to the intervention); Group II Control (students with difficulty in expository text not submitted to the intervention). The results analyzed by the JT Method showed a reliable positive change with clinical significance for students in Group I Study, and significantly for students in Group II Experimental.

Context effects in language comprehension: The role of emotional state and attention on semantic and syntactic processing.

Semantics and syntax are core components of language. The prevailing view was that processing of word meaning and syntactic processing happens in isolation from other systems. In light of proofed interactions between language and other systems, especially with perception, action and emotion, this view became untenable. This article reviews Event-related potential studies conducted at the Donders Centre for Cognition exploring the interplay between language comprehension and a person's emotional state. The research program was aimed at an investigation of the online effects of emotional state on semantic processing and syntactic processing. To this aim we manipulated mood via film fragments (happy vs. sad) before participants read neutral sentences while their EEG was recorded. In Part 1, it is shown that mood impacts online semantic processing (as indicated by N400) and the processing of syntactic violations (as indicated by P600). Part 2 was directed at a further determination of the mechanisms underlying these interactions. The role of heuristics was examined by investigating the effects of mood on the P600 to semantic reversals. The results revealed that mood affects heuristic processing. The next step consisted of an assessment of the role of attention, in the mood-by-semantics and mood-by-syntax interaction. This was accomplished by recording EEG while manipulating attention via task next to emotional state. Participants performed a semantic or syntactic judgment task vs. a letter-size judgment task. The main ERP results were as follows: (i) attention interacts with the mood effect on semantic processing and syntactic processing, respectively, (ii) the effects of mood on semantic processing and syntactic processing are reliable, and (iii) the mood effects on semantic processing are not fixed but context-dependent. In Part 3 the effects of mood on the processing of script knowledge and general world knowledge are presented. Part 4 closes with a discussion of the mechanisms involved in the mood-by-language interactions and recommendations for future research. Regarding the underlying mechanism we propose that heuristics based on semantic expectancies or syntactic expectancies play a key role in the mood-by-language interactions. The results support the view that language takes place in continuous interaction with other (non-language) systems.

Evoking the N400 Event-related Potential (ERP) Component Using a Publicly Available Novel Set of Sentences with Semantically Incongruent or Congruent Eggplants (Endings).

During speech comprehension, the ongoing context of a sentence is used to predict sentence outcome by limiting subsequent word likelihood. Neurophysiologically, violations of context-dependent predictions result in amplitude modulations of the N400 event-related potential (ERP) component. While the N400 is widely used to measure semantic processing and integration, no publicly-available auditory stimulus set is available to standardize approaches across the field. Here, we developed an auditory stimulus set of 442 sentences that utilized the semantic anomaly paradigm, measured cloze probability for all stimuli, and was made for both children and adults. With 20 neurotypical adults, we validated that this set elicits robust N400's, as well as two additional semantically-related ERP components: the recognition potential (∼ 250 ms) and the late positivity component (∼ 600 ms). This stimulus set (https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.9ghx3ffkg) and the 20 high-density (128-channel) electrophysiological datasets (https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.6wwpzgmx4) are made publicly available to promote data sharing and reuse. Future studies that use this stimulus set to investigate sentential semantic comprehension in both control and clinical populations may benefit from the increased comparability and reproducibility within this field of research.

Study of differences between patients with schizophrenia and healthy people in semantic processing.

Semantic processing is important in language comprehension and production, and context can facilitate understanding and accelerate processing speed by pre-activating semantically related words. There are many studies suggesting that patients with schizophrenia have inferior language ability. This study was aimed to examine the differences between patients with schizophrenia and healthy people in semantic processing with Chinese classifier-noun pairs rating tasks. Participants were required to finish rating tasks to judge acceptability of classifier-noun pairs. Also, the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was conducted in the schizophrenia group. According to results of variance analysis, schizophrenic patients' accuracy of judgment on the acceptability of classifier-noun pairs differed from the control group (F = 4.13, p < .05), and the contextual effect of classifier constraint could be observed in healthy people (F(1, 31) = 5.38, p < .05) but not in patients with schizophrenia (F(1, 25) = 3.55, p = .07), indicating that they failed to use the contextual information to facilitate language comprehension as healthy people. Stepwise linear regression analysis found that hostility, poor impulse control and suspiciousness/persecution and preoccupation in the PANSS may have contributed to the reduced sensitivity in the rating in patients (t = -2.38-3.80, p < .05).

Semantic Similarity of Alternatives Fostered by Conversational Negation.

Conversational negation often behaves differently from negation as a logical operator: when rejecting a state of affairs, it does not present all members of the complement set as equally plausible alternatives, but it rather suggests some of them as more plausible than others (e.g., "This is not a dog, it is a wolf/*screwdriver"). Entities that are semantically similar to a negated entity tend to be judged as better alternatives (Kruszewski et al., 2016). In fact, Kruszewski et al. (2016) show that the cosine similarity scores between the distributional semantics representations of a negated noun and its potential alternatives are highly correlated with the negated noun-alternatives human plausibility ratings. In a series of cloze tasks, we show that negation likewise restricts the production of plausible alternatives to similar entities. Furthermore, completions to negative sentences appear to be even more restricted than completions to an affirmative conjunctive context, hinting at a peculiarity of negation.

Are Linguistic Prediction Deficits Characteristic of Adults with Dyslexia?

Individuals with dyslexia show deficits in phonological abilities, rapid automatized naming, short-term/working memory, processing speed, and some aspects of sensory and visual processing. There is currently one report in the literature that individuals with dyslexia also show impairments in linguistic prediction. The current study sought to investigate prediction in language processing in dyslexia. Forty-one adults with dyslexia and 43 typically-developing controls participated. In the experiment, participants made speeded-acceptability judgements in sentences with word final cloze manipulations. The final word was a high-cloze probability word, a low-cloze probability word, or a semantically anomalous word. Reaction time from the onset of the final word to participants' response was recorded. Results indicated that individuals with dyslexia showed longer reaction times, and crucially, they showed clear differences from controls in low predictability sentences, which is consistent with deficits in linguistic prediction. Conclusions focus on the mechanism supporting prediction in language comprehension and possible reasons why individuals with dyslexia show less prediction.

Love thy neighbor: Facilitation and inhibition in the competition between parallel predictions.

Ample evidence suggests that during word recognition and production, simultaneously activated lexical and sublexical representations interact, demonstrating varied patterns of facilitation and inhibition in various tasks and measures. A separate line of research has led to a growing consensus that prediction during sentence processing involves activating multiple possible predictions. However, very little is known about the nature of the interactions between parallel predictions. The current study employed a speeded cloze task to probe competition between simultaneously activated predictions. We focused on the modal response (the most probable completion for a sentence) and its strongest competitor (the second most probable completion). Examining production latencies of the modal response, the results showed an interaction between competitor strength and the semantic relatedness between the competitor and the modal: when the two were related, the stronger the competitor was, the more it facilitated production; however, when the two were unrelated, the stronger the competitor was, the more inhibition it caused. These results contrast with the pattern observed for the influences of near and distant semantic neighbors on word recognition and production. However, we show that when the different nature of the tasks is taken into consideration, these patterns of interaction between parallel predictions can be accounted for by the interactive activation and competition (IAC) model used to account for previous neighborhood effects (Chen & Mirman, 2012).

Estudo psicométrico do Questionário de Avaliação da Consciência Metatextual / Psychometric study of the Metatextual Awareness Assessment Questionnaire / Estudio psicométrico del Cuestionario de Evaluación de la Conciencia Metatextual

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi investigar as propriedades psicométricas do Questionário de Avaliação da Consciência Metatextual (QACM). A amostra contabilizou 618 alunos do 3º ao 5º ano de escolas públicas, com idades entre 8 e 13 anos. Os instrumentos utilizados foram o QACM e dois testes de Cloze, que avaliam a compreensão de leitura. Verificou-se a evidência de validade baseada na estrutura interna para a versão com 15 itens do QACM (RMSEA = 0,03; CFI e TLI = 0,98). A evidência de validade baseada na relação com outras variáveis, tipo critério, foi estabelecida pela identificação de diferenças no desempenho no QACM para a variável ano escolar. O QACM apresentou 42% e 38% da variância explicada para o Cloze 1 e 2, respectivamente, conferindo a evidência de validade baseada na relação com outras variáveis, tipo convergente. Implicações psicopedagógicas são discutidas, mostrando possíveis alternativas de uso para o instrumento. (AU)

This study aimed to investigate the psychometric properties of the Metatextual Awareness Assessment Questionnaire (Questionário de Avaliação da Consciência Metatextual; QACM). The sample consisted of 618 students from the 3rd to the 5th year of public schools, aged between 8 and 13. The instruments used were the QACM and two Cloze tests, which assess reading comprehension. There was evidence of validity based on the internal structure for the 15-item version of the QACM (RMSEA = .03; CFI and TLI = .98). Evidence of validity based on the relationship with other variables, criterion type, was established by identifying differences in performance in the QACM according to the school year variable. The QACM presented 42% and 38% of the variance explained by Cloze 1 and 2, respectively, providing evidence of validity based on the relationship with other variables, convergent type. Psychopedagogical implications are discussed, considering possible alternative uses for the instrument. (AU)

El objetivo de esta investigación fue pesquisar las propiedades psicométricas del Cuestionario de Evaluación de la Conciencia Metatextual (QACM). La muestra contó con 618 alumnos de 3º a 5º año de escuelas públicas, con edades comprendidas entre 8 y 13 años. Los instrumentos utilizados fueron el QACM y dos tests Cloze, para evaluar la comprensión lectora. Hubo evidencias de validez basadas en la estructura interna de la versión de 15 ítems del QACM (RMSEA = 0,03; CFI e TLI = 0,98). Las evidencias de la validez relacionadas con las variables externas, como los criterios, se establecieron mediante la identificación de diferencias estadísticamente significativas en el rendimiento del QACM en cada año escolar. El QACM presentó 42% y 38% de la varianza explicada para el Cloze 1 y 2, respectivamente, proporcionando evidencias de validez relacionadas con otras variables, tipo convergente. Se discuten las implicaciones psicopedagógicas, mostrando posibles alternativas para el uso del instrumento. (AU)

Compreensão e desempenho em leitura e produção de texto em universitários / Understanding and performance in reading and text production in university students / Comprensión y desempeño en lectura y producción de textos en estudiantes universitarios

O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a relação entre a compreensão de leitura e o desempenho na disciplina de Leitura e Produção de Texto 1. Participaram do estudo 203 estudantes, ambos os sexos, com idade média de 23 anos, dos cursos de Psicologia, Pedagogia e Letras. Os voluntários responderam ao Teste de Cloze Desentendimento, e o desempenho na disciplina de Leitura e Produção de Texto foi obtido por meio da nota da prova aplicada ao final do semestre nessa matéria. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram diferença significativa de média nos escores do Teste de Cloze e das notas nas provas somente quando se comparou os grupos extremos (alto e baixo) de escore e nota. As correlações encontradas entre os dois instrumentos foram significativas, positivas e forte ou muito forte. Esses dados sugerem a importante relação entre os dois construtos avaliados. (AU)

The aim of this study was to verify the relationship between reading comprehension and performance in the Reading and Text Production 1 discipline. Study participants were 203 students, of both sexes, with a mean age of 23 years, of the Psychology, Pedagogy and Letters courses. The participants responded to the Cloze Misunderstanding Test, with the performance in the Reading and Text Production discipline obtained through the grades in the test applied at the end of the semester. The results demonstrated a significant mean difference in the scores of the Cloze Test and of the grades in the discipline only when the extreme groups (high and low) of scores and grades were compared. The correlations found between the two instruments were significant, positive and strong or very strong. These data suggest an important relationship between the two constructs evaluated. (AU)

El objetivo de este estudio fue verificar la relación entre comprensión lectora y desempeño en la asignatura de Lectura y Producción de Textos 1. Participaron 203 estudiantes de ambos sexos, con una edad media de 23 años, de las carreras de Psicología, Pedagogía y Letras. Los voluntarios respondieron al Test de Cloze Desentendimiento y el desempeño en la disciplina de Lectura y Producción de Textos se obtuvo a través de la calificación de la prueba aplicada al final del semestre en esta asignatura. Los resultados obtenidos demostraron una diferencia significativa en la media en los escores del Test Cloze y en las puntuaciones de las pruebas solo cuando se compararon los grupos extremos (alto y bajo) de escore y nota. Las correlaciones encontradas entre los dos instrumentos fueron significativas, positivas y fuertes o muy fuertes. Estos datos sugieren la importante relación entre los dos constructos evaluados. (AU)

Semantic Prediction in Brain and Mind.

We highlight a novel brain correlate of prediction, the prediction potential (or PP), a slow negative-going potential shift preceding visual, acoustic, and spoken or written verbal stimuli that can be predicted from their context. The cortical sources underlying the prediction potential reflect perceptual and semantic features of anticipated stimuli before these appear.

The Use of New Technologies for Improving Reading Comprehension.

Since the introduction of writing systems, reading comprehension has always been a foundation for achievement in several areas within the educational system, as well as a prerequisite for successful participation in most areas of adult life. The increased availability of technologies and web-based resources can be a really valid support, both in the educational and clinical field, to devise training activities that can also be carried out remotely. There are studies in current literature that has examined the efficacy of internet-based programs for reading comprehension for children with reading comprehension difficulties but almost none considered distance rehabilitation programs. The present paper reports data concerning a distance program Cloze, developed in Italy, for improving language and reading comprehension. Twenty-eight children from 3rd to 6th grade with comprehension difficulties were involved. These children completed the distance program for 15-20 min for at least three times a week for about 4 months. The program was presented separately to each child, with a degree of difficulty adapted to his/her characteristics. Text reading comprehension (assessed distinguishing between narrative and informative texts) increased after intervention. These findings have clinical and educational implications as they suggest that it is possible to promote reading comprehension with a distance individualized program, avoiding the need for the child displacements, necessary for reaching a rehabilitation center.

Normative Data for Novel Nominal Metaphors, Novel Similes, Literal, and Anomalous Utterances in Polish and English.

The two studies reported in the article provide normative measures for 120 novel nominal metaphors, 120 novel similes, 120 literal sentences, and 120 anomalous utterances in Polish (Study 1) and in English (Study 2). The presented set is ideally suited to addressing methodological requirements in research on metaphor processing. The critical (sentence-final) words of each utterance were controlled for in terms of their frequency per million, number of letters and syllables. For each condition in each language, the following variables are reported: cloze probability, meaningfulness, metaphoricity, and familiarity, whose results confirm that the sentences are well-matched. Consequently, the present paper provides materials that can be employed in order to test the new as well as existing theories of metaphor comprehension. The results obtained from the series of normative tests showed the same pattern in both studies, where the comparison structure present in similes (i.e., A is like B) facilitated novel metaphor comprehension, as compared to categorical statements (i.e., A is B). It therefore indicates that comparison mechanisms might be engaged in novel meaning construction irrespectively of language-specific syntactic rules.