Energy transition in sustainable transport: concepts, policies, and methodologies.

The growth in population, economic expansion, and urban dynamism has collectively driven a surge in the use of public and private transport, resulting in increased energy consumption in this sector. Consequently, the transport sector requires an energy transition to meet mobility demands, foster economic growth, and achieve emission reduction. The main objective of this article is to systematically review the literature on energy transition in transportation, categorizing research, identifying barriers, and providing analysis to guide future steps, with a special focus on developing countries. The methodology used in this study follows a sequence for a systematic review based on an evidence-informed approach and specific guidelines for systematic reviews, exploring the concepts, methodologies, and policies within the context of the energy transition, considering transport modes and geographical scope. The findings indicate that electricity is the predominant energy source in this transition, although its prevalence varies by transport mode. Biofuels present an alternative, primarily contributing to emission reduction associated with fossil fuel use. Natural gas emerges as a cost-effective option for heavy transport, while hydrogen represents another alternative, with the challenge of developing recharging infrastructure. Determinants of this transition include recharging infrastructure, tax and nontax incentives, public policies, the generation of electric power from renewable sources, and the management of battery life cycles from mineral extraction to disposal.

Impact of electric vechicles on power transmission grids.

This paper presents a methodology for assessing the impact of electric vehicles (EVs) on the power transmission grid of the Costa Rica Power System. The methodology considers penetration scenarios, user preferences, charging habits, and expected fleet growth. Using ETAP software, the study simulates power flow, demand behavior, and voltage levels in the presence of high penetration of electric vehicles. The analysis covers a 15-year horizon and focuses on voltage and demand profiles in 2025, 2030, and 2040. The results indicate a decline in voltage profiles that reaches dangerous levels after 2030, primarily in the distribution grid, and an increase in demand by Image 1 for 2040 in the most severe scenario. The analysis also reveals several key findings (a) the identification of problems in the electrical infrastructure starting in 2030 and a major insufficiency in accommodating the increase in EVs by 2040; (b) the need to evaluate stability in transmission grids considering loadability and voltage; (c) the necessity of investing in electrical infrastructure, driven by public policies, to meet future energy requirements and strengthen transmission networks; (d) the significance of accounting for both EV growth and electric infrastructure improvements in system analysis; and (e) the anticipation that the system's performance will fall within the extreme demand values presented in the analysis. The study emphasizes the importance of considering a broader range of scenarios and variability in parameters, especially user charging behaviors, to enable decision-makers to plan for the challenges and opportunities associated with the widespread adoption of EVs in a country's power grid.

A High-Efficiency Capacitor-Based Battery Equalizer for Electric Vehicles.

Technology in electric vehicles has increased substantially in the past decade. Moreover, it is projected to grow at record highs in the coming years since these vehicles are needed to reduce the contamination related to the transportation sector. One of the essential elements of an electric car is its battery, due to its cost. Batteries comprise parallel and series-connected cell arrangements to meet the power system requirements. Therefore, they require a cell equalizer circuit to preserve their safety and correct operation. These circuits keep a specific variable of all cells, such as the voltage, within a particular range. Within cell equalizers, capacitor-based ones are very common as they have many desirable characteristics of the ideal equalizer. In this work, an equalizer based on the switched-capacitor is proposed. A switch is added to this technology that allows the disconnection of the capacitor from the circuit. In this way, an equalization process can be achieved without excess transfers. Therefore, a more efficient and faster process can be completed. In addition, it allows another equalization variable to be used, such as the state of charge. This paper studies the operation, power design, and controller design of the converter. Moreover, the proposed equalizer was compared to other capacitor-based architectures. Finally, simulation results were presented to validate the theoretical analysis.

Estimation of lithium-ion battery scrap generation from electric vehicles in Brazil.

Among the diversity of electronic waste, lithium-ion batteries (LIB), specifically those used in the propulsion of electric vehicles (EV), are considered pollutants of significant impact. When not used and disposed of correctly, LIBs can cause damage of various types to health and the environment. The electrochemical instability inherent in these batteries releases toxic gases, risks explosion, and is always associated with a series of electronic circuits composed of various metals, including heavy metals. As a result of public policies to encourage vehicle electrification, the Brazilian EVs sector has shown high growth, even within an economic crisis scenario. In this sense, this study presents a model for estimating the production of electric vehicles and the generation of scrap LIBs, based on time series, combining battery life, car sales data, and the mileage profile covered by a car in Brazil. Around 700 thousand EVs are expected to be circulating in Brazil by 2030, with approximately 500 thousand LIBs to be converted into scrap by 2040. Finally, the delaying effect of the scrap generated from LIBs is highlighted, in line with the battery life, which, in the future, may have a very negative impact on waste management.

A Composite DC-DC Converter Based on the Versatile Buck-Boost Topology for Electric Vehicle Applications.

The composite converter allows integrating the high-efficiency converter modules to achieve superior efficiency performance, becoming a prominent solution for electric transport power conversion. In this work, the versatile buck-boost dc-dc converter is proposed to be integrated into an electric vehicle composite architecture that requires a wide voltage range in the dc link to improve the electric motor efficiency. The inductor core of this versatile buck-boost converter has been redesigned for high voltage applications. The versatile buck-boost converter module of the composite architecture is in charge of the control stage. It provides a dc bus voltage regulation at a wide voltage operation range, which requires step-up (boost) and step-down (buck) operating modes. The PLECS thermal simulation of the composite architecture shows a superior power conversion efficiency of the proposed topology over the well-known classical noninverting buck-boost converter under the same operating conditions. The obtained results have been validated via experimental efficiency measures and experimental transient responses of the versatile buck-boost converter. Finally, a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) real-time simulation system of a 4.4 kW powertrain is presented using a PLECS RT Box 1 device. The HIL simulation results verified the accuracy of the theoretical analysis and the effectiveness of the proposed architecture.

Ecodesign approach for pharmaceutical packaging based on Life Cycle Assessment.

Packaging ecodesign can contribute to improve the environmental performance of pharmaceutical products. The main goal of this article is to present an ecodesign approach based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for pharmaceutical packaging, assessing opportunities to improve the packaging environmental performance, and providing ecodesign recommendations to the pharmaceutical sector. The proposed ecodesign approach consists of five phases. I) The most representative packaging of medicines in the market (blister, bottle, and sachet), with different sizes, materials and weights, were investigated. II) Three ecodesign strategies were selected to analyze with LCA: i) weight and/or volume reduction, ii) alternative types of packaging, and iii) transportation with less environmental impact. III-IV) A cradle-to-gate life cycle model has been implemented, including transport to pharmacies. Alternative transportation modes (truck, train, airplane, and ship) and different packaging production locations have been considered. Thirteen environmental categories have been analyzed. V) Ecodesign recommendations for improving the environmental performance of pharmaceutical packaging are presented in two stages: i) specific recommendations based on LCA, illustrated in sheets with examples of ecodesign, quantifying the environmental impact reduction of an ecodesign solution compared to the original; and ii) generic recommendations for different packaging life cycle phases. Ecodesign recommendations highlight the use of smaller-size packaging, avoiding superfluous elements and empty spaces, which reduces material and production costs, and transportation impacts; the selection of modes of transportation with less environmental impact, considering the packaging production location; and the use of electric vehicles for pharmacy distribution. This ecodesign approach based on LCA allows quantifying environmental impacts robustly to support the incorporation of environmental information from the design, material selection, and packaging production to distribution till the final consumer. This article emphasizes the importance of developing specific packaging ecodesign based on LCA to improve environmental performance and provide more informed recommendations to stakeholders.

Impact on the Distribution Grid Due to the Introduction of Electric Vehicles on Fernando de Noronha Island (Brazil)

Abstract Increasing global temperatures over the past years have become a worry. To mitigate this, countries have set out to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions soon. A major contributor to these emissions has been the transport sector. Electric mobility has appeared as an opportunity to decarbonize this sector. With this in mind, Fernando de Noronha Island, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, has determined to ban all fossil fuel vehicles by 2030. Understanding the impact electric vehicles can have on the island's distribution grid is fundamental to achieving this goal. To determine these impacts, electrical vehicle chargers were added to the model of the island's power system in GridLad-D. Apart from these chargers, the impact of adding an extra carport charger fitted with solar panels was also determined. In total, six different charging scenarios were simulated, with each varying the period in which vehicle charging was allowed to take place. The impacts were determined for the day, afternoon, and night charging, with and without the presence of a carport. The parameters measured include system power demand, voltage, and total losses. From the results, it was possible to determine the charging strategy that causes the least and most impact on the system's distribution grid.

Effects of fuel change to electricity on PM2.5 local levels in the Bus Rapid Transit System of Bogota.

The TransMilenio (TM) is a transport system. Twenty-year-old TM is a fast, highly efficient, and self-sufficient mode of passenger transport. This work aims to evaluate the effects of changing current TM diesel buses by electricity-powered buses (battery, wire-based), on the PM2.5 concentrations at surface level. Emissions calculations considering combustions and resuspension of TM and Non-TM were performed. A CFD model was implemented to estimate current PM2.5 concentrations at the roadside level, and the CFD results were validated using the statistic parameters: MB, RMSE, r, and IOA. Results from the emission calculations indicate that TM buses (30-50%) are one of the main sources of primary PM2.5 in all the considered urban sites in this study. Non-exhaust emissions from most vehicle categories were also identified as an important source of primary PM2.5 (40% of total emissions). The CFD model reproduced closely the trends and levels of PM2.5 concentrations measured at the roadside level in all the locations. Replacing TM diesel vehicles with electric vehicles reduces PM2.5 concentrations between 10 and 30% according to the CFD results obtained. Higher reductions can be achieved if policies are adopted to control other types of vehicles and non-exhaust emissions since they have a contribution of about 60%. Finally, this study shows that the combined use of emission calculations and advanced near-road dispersion models are useful tools to study and manage air quality in large cities.

Integration of a Pilot PV Parking Lot and an Electric Vehicle in a University Campus Located in Curitiba: a Study Case

Abstract Considering the increasing adoption of Hybrid Plug-in and Electric Cars, there are concerns about recharging process of these vehicles considering the capacity of grid to provide sufficient energy to that purpose. In the past years, the growth of distributed energy generation from renewable and clean energy sources, especially photovoltaics, represents a possible and feasible solution to supply the energy used on recharging electric vehicles and reduction of greenhouse emission gases as CO2. This article is a study case that analyzes the energy production of a solar carport, located at Federal Technological University of Paraná (UTFPR) at Neoville Campus, comparing with energy consumption of a commercial electric car for a city use purpose. Based on solar energy generation, data from the web monitoring platform, real positioning characteristics of the solar carport installation, irradiation data collected from the National Institute of Meteorology basis and with a solarimetric station located at the same place as the solar carport is installed, the solar energy production is rated using three different metrics: yield, performance ratio and capacity factor. These metrics are calculated with RADIASOL2 software, a free and precise tool, developed by Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) to execute computational simulation of photovoltaic systems using mathematical models. The results showed a slightly low energy production performance than expected, but more than enough energy to recharge an electric vehicle for a day use, demonstrating that a solar carport system could be a good solution to meet the energy demand for this application.

Optimal Dispatch and Technical and Economic Feasibility Analysis of Residential Microgrids Considering Demand Side Management

Abstract The electrical system is becoming more robust with the insertion of distributed energy resources (DERs) and the need for energy autonomy by consumers, given that the current scenario is a growth in demand for electric energy. This paper aims to apply a computational model capable of determining the optimal hourly allocation of controllable loads in residence, as well as studying the optimal dispatch of residential microgrids considering management on the demand side. In addition, this paper presents an economic feasibility analysis of residential microgrids considering distributed generation from wind and solar sources, distributed storage, electric vehicles, and residential controllable loads. Thus, it was possible to conclude that in residence, the insertion of distributed energy generation and storage elements can present a significant reduction in electric energy costs, which can be even greater if these elements are associated with optimized controllable load management.

Overview and Future Challenges on the Connection of Electric Vehicles into Modern Distribution Power Systems

Abstract Distribution systems worldwide have suffered profound alterations to their passive historic characteristic in the last decade due to the ever-increasing installation of distributed generators. Nowadays, it is consensual among researchers and utilities that soon most of the investments in distribution networks will be towards the materialization of smart-grids, which implies even more drastic impacts on the grid operation. In this new context, distributed generators, energy storage systems, electric vehicles and other types of resources will operate in coordination with technologies such as internet of things and big data, in an even more active distribution grid under a decentralized electricity market. Thus, it is fundamental to develop the means to control such an interactive power grid, including technologies, products, and ideas. Although several articles have been published addressing this topic, each country's distribution grids have their peculiarities, and so should the proposals for smart-grid implementation on each of them. In this sense, it is crucial investigating what has already been proposed and implemented in the Brazilian smart-grid context to forecast and formulate the next steps on this topic. Smart-grid comprises several fields, in this paper we focus on the electric vehicle branch, providing a review of the subject under the Brazilian context. Additionally, the paper addresses the development of technologies, electricity market regulation, and strategic business models under the current scenario and a near-future perspective.

Decarbonizing the transport sector: The promethean responsibility of Nicaragua.

The transport sector is the second largest energy consumer in Nicaragua, and it relies solely on oil derivatives. It is growing at an unsustainable rate and Nicaragua must explore alternative transport pathways to decarbonize this sector. This study developed 5 scenarios to assess transport alternatives for Nicaragua such as a mass public transport system for the country's capital, the adoption of electric vehicles, and a shift to electrofuels. The scenarios reflect the Nicaraguan energy system in 2030 after the implementation of these alternatives. The results show that stabilizing the transport demand via public transport is a key aspect to achieve decarbonization cost-effectively. Furthermore, the results highlight the direct link between the decarbonization of the transport sector and of the power sector. The adoption of electric vehicles and the production of electrofuels create synergies between the two sectors making them suitable options to integrate higher shares of variable renewable energy in the generation matrix. These synergies increase the overall efficiency of the system and reduce operating costs and CO2 emissions.

Converting a Conventional Vehicle into an Electric Vehicle (EV)

Abstract The electric vehicle (EV) is not a recent invention. Between the end of the XIX century and the beginning of the XX century, most motor vehicles were electric, due to their superior reliability and cleanliness, compared to that of vehicles driven by internal combustion engines (ICE). However, with the development of ICEs and the reduction of their price, electric cars were forgotten. Only almost a century later, they returned in the market due to a significant increase in fossil fuels prices, as well as to a growing environmental concern. EVs present a number of advantages over ICE vehicles: they are simpler and require less use and replacement of parts, resulting in lower maintenance costs; moreover, they do not release pollutants into the environment. However, their production cost is still much higher than that of ICE vehicles. In order to verify the possibility of converting a conventional vehicle into an electric one at a reasonable cost, achieving a good performance and a good kWh/km ratio, an ICE-powered Mercedes-Benz Class A 190 was converted into an EV. The results of several tests indicate that the conversion is feasible, as the car reached an average travelling cost of 0.16 R$/km, assuming a price for the energy of 0.63 R$/kWh. Moreover, this cost could be as low as zero if solar radiation is utilized to generate electricity through photovoltaic panels, which is an even more environmentally sustainable solution..

Analysis of the Impacts of the Electrification of the Vehicle Fleet in the Electric Power System in Curitiba

ABSTRACT The Market share of electrical vehicles has been rising in the past few years and tends to rise even more. According to the International Energy Agency, an increase of 50% in the number of electrical vehicles is expected. Whilst that increase is beneficial from a greenhouse gases emissions drop point of view, that rise could, on the other hand, represent a major increase in the electrical power consumption. Besides, other problems such as harmonics and overloads could emerge from the massive connection of electrical vehicles to the electrical grid. Therefore, it is necessary to perform studies and simulations in order to estimate those problems and to mitigate the problems related to the inevitable expansion of the electric vehicle fleet in the near future. The present work intends to run simulations so as to identify the main effects of the electrification of the vehicular fleet in the city of Curitiba, as well as understand how the provision of ancillary services through the electrical vehicles can help in the process.

Revisão de aplicações de veículos elétricos no meio rural / Review on applications of electric vehicles in the countryside

This paper presents the main applications of electric vehicles in rural areas, pointing out the trends and challenges for the future. Technological conditions and difficulties faced by the industry for a wide dissemination of this technology are discussed. The paper described the main researches with proposals to overcome the problems of implementing electric tractors, as supply and electricity storage. Technical and economic comparisons between conventional internal combustion tractors and electric tractors are also presented and discussed. The paper showed the existence of barriers to the implementation of electric vehicles in rural areas, as well as the need for batteries technological evolution, which have high costs and for that reason they are very heavy for these purposes, but there are already systems that can be applied to minimize dependence of fossil fuels in this sector and increase the use of sustainable energy.

Este artigo apresenta as principais aplicações de veículos elétricos no meio rural, apontando as tendências e mudanças futuras. O trabalho discute também as condições tecnológicas e dificuldades enfrentadas pelo setor industrial para a inserção do veículo elétrico no mercado. São apresentados os principais pesquisadores da área com propostas para superar os problemas da implementação dos tratores elétricos, tais como abastecimento e armazenamento de energia elétrica. As comparações técnicas e econômicas entre tratores convencionais, a combustão interna, e tratores elétricos são apresentadas e discutidas. A revisão mostra a existência de barreiras para a implantação dos veículos elétricos no meio rural, como a necessidade de evolução tecnológica das baterias, que apresentam alto custo e ainda são pesadas para este propósito, mas mostra também que já existem sistemas que podem minimizar a dependência de combustíveis fósseis do setor e aumentar o uso de energia sustentável.

Revisão de aplicações de veículos elétricos no meio rural / Review on applications of electric vehicles in the countryside

This paper presents the main applications of electric vehicles in rural areas, pointing out the trends and challenges for the future. Technological conditions and difficulties faced by the industry for a wide dissemination of this technology are discussed. The paper described the main researches with proposals to overcome the problems of implementing electric tractors, as supply and electricity storage. Technical and economic comparisons between conventional internal combustion tractors and electric tractors are also presented and discussed. The paper showed the existence of barriers to the implementation of electric vehicles in rural areas, as well as the need for batteries technological evolution, which have high costs and for that reason they are very heavy for these purposes, but there are already systems that can be applied to minimize dependence of fossil fuels in this sector and increase the use of sustainable energy.(AU)

Este artigo apresenta as principais aplicações de veículos elétricos no meio rural, apontando as tendências e mudanças futuras. O trabalho discute também as condições tecnológicas e dificuldades enfrentadas pelo setor industrial para a inserção do veículo elétrico no mercado. São apresentados os principais pesquisadores da área com propostas para superar os problemas da implementação dos tratores elétricos, tais como abastecimento e armazenamento de energia elétrica. As comparações técnicas e econômicas entre tratores convencionais, a combustão interna, e tratores elétricos são apresentadas e discutidas. A revisão mostra a existência de barreiras para a implantação dos veículos elétricos no meio rural, como a necessidade de evolução tecnológica das baterias, que apresentam alto custo e ainda são pesadas para este propósito, mas mostra também que já existem sistemas que podem minimizar a dependência de combustíveis fósseis do setor e aumentar o uso de energia sustentável.(AU)

Review on applications of electric ehicles in the countryside / Revisão de aplicações de veículos elétricos no meio rural

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the main applications of electric vehicles in rural areas, pointing out the trends and challenges for the future. Technological conditions and difficulties faced by the industry for a wide dissemination of this technology are discussed. The paper described the main researches with proposals to overcome the problems of implementing electric tractors, as supply and electricity storage. Technical and economic comparisons between conventional internal combustion tractors and electric tractors are also presented and discussed. The paper showed the existence of barriers to the implementation of electric vehicles in rural areas, as well as the need for batteries technological evolution, which have high costs and for that reason they are very heavy for these purposes, but there are already systems that can be applied to minimize dependence of fossil fuels in this sector and increase the use of sustainable energy.

RESUMO: Este artigo apresenta as principais aplicações de veículos elétricos no meio rural, apontanto as tendências e mudanças futuras. O trabalho discute também as condições tecnológicas e dificuldades enfrentadas pelo setor industrial para a inserção do veículo elétrico no mercado. São apresentados os principais pesquisadores da área com propostas para superar os problemas da implementação dos tratores elétricos, tais como abastecimento e armazenamento de energia elétrica. As comparações técnicas e econômicas entre tratores convencionais, a combustão interna, e tratores elétricos são apresentadas e discutidas. A revisão mostra a existência de barreiras para a implantação dos veículos elétricos no meio rural, como a necessidade de evolução tecnológica das baterias, que apresentam alto custo e ainda são pesadas para este propósito, mas mostra também que já existem sistemas que podem minimizar a dependência de compubstíveis fóceis do setor e aumentar o uso de energia sustentável.