Meta-analysis of the prevalence of norovirus and hepatitis a virus in berries.

Norovirus (NoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) stand as the predominant agents associated with viral foodborne infections. Outbreaks have been documented to be caused by various types of food items, including fresh and/or frozen berries. Comprehensive data concerning crucial viral pathogens in berries remain limited and are not currently available in aggregate form. Consequently, the present study aimed to compile the existing information regarding the prevalence of NoV and HAV in this matrix. Records of foodborne viruses were systematically extracted from database repositories up to December 2022, adhering to PRISMA standards and were subjected to a multilevel random effect meta-analysis model to determine the mean occurrence rate of NoV and HAV. A high heterogeneity across studies was observed (I2 = 82 %), reflecting variations in the prevalence of sampling locations, years, berry types, and sample conditions, among other potential contributing factors. The prevalence of NoV and HAV in berries was calculated at 2.12 % (95 % CI 1.74-2.59 %), and no statistically differences were observed among the viral types or genogroup categories. However, it is important to clarify that this estimate should be taken with caution given the high heterogeneity. There was no discernible correlation between viral prevalence and any particular berry type. However, there was a temporal correlation observed with the year of sampling, revealing a significantly decreasing trend throughout the study period. A significant influence of the sample condition (fresh or frozen) was observed in relation to the prevalence of NoV GII and HAV. Overall higher viral prevalences were identified in berries originating from African countries as compared to those sourced from other continents. It was also noted that the prevalence of NoV GI was significantly higher in samples collected directly from farms compared to those obtained from retailers. The outcomes of this comprehensive meta-analysis propose that while viral contamination of berries is diminishing in more recent times, the prevalence remains substantial in certain African countries, having a significant risk for foodborne infections. It is imperative to implement intervention strategies in these regions to enhance product safety.

Approaches to produce and characterize recombinant protein VP1-2A of HAV for serological rapid test application.

Studies reporting the expression of hepatitis A virus (HAV) structural proteins, specifically recombinant VP1-2A containing an immunogenic activity, use the Escherichia coli system. Recombinant HAV proteins may represent a source of less expensive antigens for application in different diagnostic platforms. However, the formation of insoluble aggregates is an obstacle to obtaining large amounts of HAV proteins in their native form. To overcome this obstacle, some approaches were applied in this study to improve purification, solubility, and protein expression levels. Critical properties were evaluated. The introduction of another insertion codon to increase the protein concentration and vector activity was observed and verified by SDS-PAGE. The expression was established with 0.4 mM IPTG for 4 h at 37 °C. The VP1 protein was partially soluble at an isoeletric point (pI) of 6.45. The majority of HAV VP1-2A proteins measured 45.19 kDa in size and had a homogeneity of 53.58%. Multi-antigen print immunoassay (MAPIA) showed antigenicity at different HAV VP1-2A concentrations, and microsphere-based immunoassays showed a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 84%. HAV VP1-2A was characterized using different sensitivity methods to prove its biological activity, indicating its use as a tool for the diagnosis of Hepatitis A virus infection.

Changing molecular epidemiology of Hepatitis A virus in Santiago, Chile from 2010 to 2021.

OBJECTIVES: Hepatitis A (HAV) virus causes asymptomatic to life-treating fulminant hepatitis. During infection, patients show large viral excretion in their stools. Resistance of HAV to environmental conditions, allows us to recover viral nucleotide sequences from wastewater and trace its evolutionary history. METHODS: We characterize twelve years of HAV circulation in wastewater from Santiago, Chile, and conducted phylogenetic analyses to decipher the dynamics of circulating lineages. RESULTS: We observed the exclusive circulation of the HAV IA genotype. The molecular epidemiologic analyses showed a steady circulation of a dominant lineage with low genetic diversity (d = 0,007) between 2010 and 2017. An outbreak of Hepatitis A associated with men who have sex with men, in 2017 was associated with the irruption of a new lineage. Remarkably, a dramatic change in the dynamic of HAV circulation was observed in the period post-outbreak; between 2017 and 2021 when 4 different lineages were transiently detected. Exhaustive phylogenetic analyses indicate that these lineages were introduced and possibly derived from isolates from other Latin American countries. CONCLUSION: The HAV circulation in recent years in Chile is rapidly changing and suggests that this phenomenon could be a consequence of massive population migrations in Latin America caused by political instability and natural disasters.

High prevalence of hepatitis A and E viruses in environmental and clinical samples from West Argentina.

Environmental surveillance of water sources is important to monitoring viral hepatitis transmission in clinical settings. This study investigated the circulation of hepatitis A (HAV) and E (HEV) viruses in sewage and clinical samples from Argentina. Between 2016 and 2017, 80 raw sewage samples and 86 clinical samples (stool and serum) from suspected cases of hepatitis A and hepatitis E were obtained. HAV and HEV were tested by both real-time and nested PCR. Positive samples were sequenced for genotype determination and phylogenetic analysis. Overall, HAV was recovered in 39% of sewage samples and 61.1% of clinical samples. HEV was detected in 22.5% of sewage samples and 15.9% of clinical samples. HAV was found more frequently in sewage during the winter and in clinical samples in spring; HEV was more prevalent in sewage during summer and in clinical samples in autumn. All HAV isolates belonged to genotype IA and HEV isolates belonged to genotype 3, the most prevalent genotypes in South America. High prevalence of HAV and HEV in environmental and clinical samples in Mendoza, Argentina was observed. These findings reinforce the importance of environmental surveillance and implementation of health strategies to control the spread of HAV and HEV in developing countries.

High prevalence of hepatitis A and E viruses in environmental and clinical samples from West Argentina

ABSTRACT Environmental surveillance of water sources is important to monitoring viral hepatitis transmission in clinical settings. This study investigated the circulation of hepatitis A (HAV) and E (HEV) viruses in sewage and clinical samples from Argentina. Between 2016 and 2017, 80 raw sewage samples and 86 clinical samples (stool and serum) from suspected cases of hepatitis A and hepatitis E were obtained. HAV and HEV were tested by both real-time and nested PCR. Positive samples were sequenced for genotype determination and phylogenetic analysis. Overall, HAV was recovered in 39% of sewage samples and 61.1% of clinical samples. HEV was detected in 22.5% of sewage samples and 15.9% of clinical samples. HAV was found more frequently in sewage during the winter and in clinical samples in spring; HEV was more prevalent in sewage during summer and in clinical samples in autumn. All HAV isolates belonged to genotype IA and HEV isolates belonged to genotype 3, the most prevalent genotypes in South America. High prevalence of HAV and HEV in environmental and clinical samples in Mendoza, Argentina was observed. These findings reinforce the importance of environmental surveillance and implementation of health strategies to control the spread of HAV and HEV in developing countries.

The first evidence of hepatitis A virus subgenotype IIIA in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon, 1982-1983.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a major causative agent of acute hepatitis worldwide. Although discovered in 1973, due to limitations of applicable serological and/or molecular methods, HAV remained under limited diagnosis until the late 1980s. This study aimed to retrospectively evaluate the serological and molecular prevalence of the HAV infection among 421 (n = 421) patients with a clinical and laboratory suspicion of acute hepatitis who were admitted in a reference laboratory in the Brazilian Eastern Amazon during 1982 and 1983. The 421 serum samples were screened for anti-HAV IgM antibodies by enzymatic immunoassays. Positive samples were submitted to total RNA purification and tested by Nested reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction to amplify the HAV-RNA VP1-2A (522 bp) region. Anti-HAV IgM antibodies were detected in 66% (278/421) of the patients. The highest prevalence was observed among males (57.9%, 161/278), and most often among children under 10 years old (63.3%, 176/278). HAV-RNA was detected in 74.4% (207/278) of anti-HAV IgM positive samples. HAV genotyping was performed in 71 samples, and 69 were classified into subgenotype IA. Two samples belonged to the HAV subgenotype IIIA. In this sense, retrospective studies can help in understanding the evolution and determination of wild genotypes and subtypes of HAV.

The Effect of Hallux Valgus Surgery on the Transverse Plane Hallux Proximal Phalanx Position.

The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the apparent movement of the hallux proximal phalanx in the transverse plane relative to the second metatarsal following hallux valgus surgery. Pre- and postoperative radiographs of a consecutive series of 45 feet undergoing hallux valgus surgery were analyzed. Significant improvements were observed in the first intermetatarsal angle (12.4 vs 7.5 degrees; p < .001), hallux valgus angle (24.3 vs 13.4 degrees; p < .001), tibial sesamoid position (4.6 vs 2.7; p < .001), and second metatarsal-hallux proximal phalanx angle (80.1 vs 84.6 degrees; p < .001). No difference was observed in the distance between the second metatarsal bisection and the medial aspect of the tibial sesamoid (31.7 vs 31.5 mm; p = .756) nor between the second metatarsal bisection and medial aspect of the hallux proximal phalanx base (34.6 vs 34.2 mm; p = .592). Significant differences were observed between the second metatarsal bisection and the central aspect of hallux proximal phalanx base (26.5 vs 23.9 mm; p < .001) and between the second metatarsal bisection and the lateral aspect of the hallux proximal phalanx base (19.3 vs 15.4 mm; p < .001). A statistically significant difference was observed in the change of distance between the second metatarsal bisection and the medial, central, and lateral aspects of the hallux proximal phalanx base (-0.4 vs -2.6 vs -3.9 mm; p = .002). These results indicate that the hallux proximal phalanx does not translocate in the transverse plane following hallux valgus surgery, but instead pivots about the medial aspect of the joint.

Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Hepatitis A Virus and Hepatitis E Virus Among Children with Acute Hepatitis in Mexico.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) cause most of the global burden of viral hepatitis. Geographical and seasonal patterns contribute to the epidemiological status of infectious diseases. The extent of these features in the setting of HAV and HEV infections has not been analyzed in detail. This point is important in highly endemic countries of both viruses, where the pediatric population is at high risk of contracting these infections. A comparison between the frequency of antibodies to HAV and HEV and viral RNA detection in serum samples from pediatric patients with acute hepatitis from South and West Mexico was performed. All samples were positive for HAV mono-infection, which was most frequently detected in the metropolitan areas during the rainy season in the South (90%) and all year round in the West (42%). No HEV mono-infection was detected in the studied regions. A 58% frequency for HAV/HEV co-infection was found in the West, predominantly in the metropolitan areas during the rainy months. A 10% frequency for co-infection broadly distributed in the South throughout the year was also found. Our findings underscore that the distribution of HAV and HEV infections varies through the year and differs among Mexico's distinct geographical regions.

Recent trends in hepatitis A incidence in Brazil.

Hepatitis A incidence has been decreasing in Brazil since child vaccination was implemented in 2014. This trend was interrupted by an outbreak among adult male in São Paulo in 2017. This study was outlined to estimate whether the increase of hepatitis A cases among adult men in Brazil was restricted to São Paulo. Cases reported to the national surveillance system from 14 large cities of all Brazilian regions were analyzed. Trends in time series from 2012 to 2018 were estimated by Prais-Winsten regression. The outbreak in São Paulo extended to 2018. In Rio de Janeiro, the number of cases rose again, achieving the same levels reported before the vaccination era. Three of six cities from South and Southeast regions showed an upward trend in the number of cases among adult men (P < .005). The large cities in the other three Brazilian macroregions showed a decrease or stabilization of cases without an increase among male adults. The increase of hepatitis A virus (HAV) cases in Brazil has happened not only in São Paulo, but also in other cities of South and Southeast regions. The northernmost cities were not affected. A change in the epidemiological pattern of HAV infection is emerging in Southern Brazil.

Fecal pollution source tracking and thalassogenic diseases: The temporal-spatial concordance between maximum concentrations of human mitochondrial DNA in seawater and Hepatitis A outbreaks among a coastal population.

Fecal pollution source tracking (FST) studies the origin of fecal contamination and promotes action to eliminate it to improve human health and environmental sustainability. This work presents the temporal and spatial relations of human mitochondrial DNA (HmtDNA), fecal coliforms (FC) and live microbial biomass (ATP) in seawater during a hepatitis A outbreak among a human coastal population. The study area is approximately 100 km along the coastline of the Biobío Region in the southeastern Pacific (Humboldt Current System, Chile). Total data from the swash zone from summer 2015 to autumn 2016 show there were significant positive log-log correlations between FC and HmtDNA (R = 0.32) and ATP (R = 0.31). These correlations were highest during the austral spring of 2015 (R = 0.53 and 0.58 respectively), when HmtDNA also correlated significantly with ATP (R = 0.86). Maximum average values of the parameters measured in this season showed a temporal-spatial concordance with the peak in the number of hepatitis A cases among the nearby coastal population. FC correlated significantly with HmtDNA (R = 0.98) in the water column of the coastal zone close to Concepción Bay during the austral summer of 2016 and in the swash zone of the bay (R = 0.68) throughout the study period. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) has also been detected in organisms and seawater in Concepción Bay, which is consistent with the high incidence of hepatitis A among the coastal population. The concordance between human fecal pollution in the study area and a seasonal hepatitis A outbreak strongly suggests that HmtDNA and its relation with FC and ATP in the coastal zone of marine environments can be used as a proxy to evaluate the risk of outbreaks of thalassogenic diseases.

Hepatitis A outbreak affecting men who have sex with men (MSM) in central Argentina, occurred in July 2017-April 2018, later than the European outbreak.

BACKGROUND: During June-2016-May-2017, several outbreaks of HA were recorded in Europe, especially described in MSM. In our area since July-2017, an increase of hepatitis A (HA) notification was reported. OBJECTIVE: In order to understand the unusual increase of cases occurred in the central region of Argentina, the aim of this study was to describe, characterize and contextualize epidemiologically the HA outbreak occurred this area, until April2018. STUDY DESIGN: HA cases (positive anti-HAV IgM) obtained from the calendar week 29/2017 in which the first case of MSM was recognized were included in our study. HAV RNA detection and molecular characterization was performed from serum samples and/or stool by RT - PCR of VP1/2A genomic region (360bp). RESULTS: Of the 32 cases notified, 87.5% of them were unvaccinated men and 69.6% were MSM (mean age 31.9 years). All MSM associated HAV sequences were genotyped as IA, and clustered with the VRD 521-2016 strain, responsible of causing outbreaks mostly in MSM in Europe since mid-2016. CONCLUSION: As a consequence of the implementation of immunization in children, and the improvement in socio-economic, hygienic and sanitation factors, young adults are becoming increasingly susceptible to HAV infections. Here we add evidence in South America to the HA outbreaks described worldwide among young MSM, demonstrating the need to reinforce official policy of vaccination, in this group and adjust epidemiological surveillance, catch-up vaccination for adolescents, young adults and immunosuppressed patients.

Challenges in Management of Hepatitis A Virus Epidemiological Transition in Mexico.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the most common cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. The virus is mainly transmitted via the fecaloral route and, the incidence of infection is closely related to low socioeconomic conditions and poor sanitation. Mexico, previously categorized an area of high endemicity for HAV infection, is undergoing epidemiological transition. However, a limited number of HAV-related scientific reports regarding to virus burden is available. According to the local government health agency (Secretarla de Salud, SSA in Spanish), from 1994 to 2017 a reduction in the incidence of hepatitis related to HAV has been reported. However, HAV is still the most common cause of viral hepatitis in the country, and the pediatric population is the most prone to be infected with this virus. The analysis of the SSA data reveals that most of the reported cases from 1994 to 2017 were found in highly industrialized states. This information contradicts the documented relationship between the highest prevalence of infection and the lowest socio-economic status, and supports the necessity of viral detection and notification of HAV cases. Moreover, in spite that four HAV vaccines are available in Mexico and universal vaccination has been shown to be beneficial in developing countries in terms of declining endemicity, HAV vaccination is not mandatory in Mexico. In this review, preventive strategies including appropriate diagnosis, vaccination and public health policies on the basis of the epidemiologic status of HAV in Mexico are discussed.

Hepatitis A Strain Linked to the European Outbreaks During Gay Events between 2016 and 2017, Identified in a Brazilian Homosexual Couple in 2017.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) outbreaks among men who have sex with men (MSM) have been reported worldwide and associated primarily with sexual transmission through oral-anal sex. Here, we provide the molecular and evolutionary description of a European strain, linked to HAV outbreaks among MSM, detected in a Brazilian homosexual couple. Bayesian analysis provided evidence that the viral isolates were introduced in Brazil from Spain between the end of 2016 and the beginning of 2017.

Hepatitis A Virus, Hepatitis E Virus, and Rotavirus in Foods of Animal Origin Traded at the Borders of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay.

The aim of this study was to investigate hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis E (HEV), and rotavirus (RV) in fresh and processed meat traded on the border of Brazil with Argentina and Uruguay. In total, 159 samples of raw and processed foods of animal origin were collected in Paso de los Libres, Argentina (n = 53 raw meat, n = 24 processed meat) and Rivera, Uruguay (n = 55 raw meat, n = 18 processed meat), or were seized by the Brazilian International Agricultural Surveillance System-VIGIAGRO (Brazil-Argentina border) (n = 8 raw meat, n = 1 bush meat). All samples were tested for the presence of HAV, HEV, and RV genomes. HAV genes were detected in 18.23% of samples and RV genes in 23.89%. No HEV-positive samples were detected. HAV was also detected in two of the VIGIAGRO samples. Processed meats from Argentina and Uruguay had a higher rate of HAV and RV than raw meat (P > 0.05). The median HAV in the Argentinian and Uruguayan samples was 6.9 × 104 and 3.5 × 103 copies/g, respectively. The presence of RV viral genes in raw meats from Argentina was significant, and this was not observed in processed meats. The presence of HAV and RV genes in a significant portion of products from Argentina and Uruguay is a potential source of human infection. This also indicates precarious conditions of acquisition, processing, and manipulation, which could be improved by improved regulation of food across borders.

Initial evaluation of universal immunization with a single dose against hepatitis A virus in Central Brazil

ABSTRACT Vaccination against the hepatitis A virus (HAV) administered in two doses has been used effectively in universal child immunization programs in several countries. A single-dose vaccination was adopted in some low-income countries in an attempt to reduce costs without losing effectiveness. In 2014, single-dose universal vaccination was introduced in Brazil for children aged two years. Since such strategy is still not universally accepted, its efficacy should be compared to the two-dose strategy. To assess the humoral response after the single-dose HAV vaccination schedule, a cross-sectional study was conducted in Primavera do Leste, in Mato Grosso state, Central Brazil, including 265 children vaccinated through the National Immunization Program. Blood was collected by using a digital puncture and further applied to filter paper cards. Anti-HAV was detected in 218 out of 265 dried blood spots (DBS). Blood venous samples were collected from 34 out of 47 children who were not anti-HAV positive in DBS samples. Eighteen of them tested positive for anti-HAV, giving a final score of 93.6% (236/252) of seropositivity. In conclusion, this study demonstrated a high rate of anti-HAV positivity in the short term after single-dose hepatitis A vaccination in the population investigated. Moreover, the DBS was shown to be a reliable tool for detecting anti-HAV antibodies.

Initial evaluation of universal immunization with a single dose against hepatitis A virus in Central Brazil.

Vaccination against the hepatitis A virus (HAV) administered in two doses has been used effectively in universal child immunization programs in several countries. A single-dose vaccination was adopted in some low-income countries in an attempt to reduce costs without losing effectiveness. In 2014, single-dose universal vaccination was introduced in Brazil for children aged two years. Since such strategy is still not universally accepted, its efficacy should be compared to the two-dose strategy. To assess the humoral response after the single-dose HAV vaccination schedule, a cross-sectional study was conducted in Primavera do Leste, in Mato Grosso state, Central Brazil, including 265 children vaccinated through the National Immunization Program. Blood was collected by using a digital puncture and further applied to filter paper cards. Anti-HAV was detected in 218 out of 265 dried blood spots (DBS). Blood venous samples were collected from 34 out of 47 children who were not anti-HAV positive in DBS samples. Eighteen of them tested positive for anti-HAV, giving a final score of 93.6% (236/252) of seropositivity. In conclusion, this study demonstrated a high rate of anti-HAV positivity in the short term after single-dose hepatitis A vaccination in the population investigated. Moreover, the DBS was shown to be a reliable tool for detecting anti-HAV antibodies.

Detección del genotipo 1d del virus de la hepatitis E en pacientes con sospecha de hepatitis viral aguda, Cuba 2013 / Detection of hepatitis E virus genotype 1d in patients with suspect of acute viral hepatitis in Cuba during 2013

Resumen Introducción El virus de la hepatitis E (VHE) se transmite, principalmente, por vía fecal-oral y es una de las principales causas de hepatitis viral aguda (HVA) en el mundo. En Cuba, a pesar de que este virus tiene un comportamiento endémico, no se relaciona a este patógeno al presentarse una hepatitis viral de trasmisión entérica. Objetivo Teniendo en cuenta que el VHE y el virus de la hepatitis A (VHA) comparten rutas de transmisión, nos propusimos estimar la incidencia de ésta infección (VHE), en muestras que se recibieron de todo el país durante el año 2013, cuyo criterio de inclusión fue la indicación médica de IgM anti-VHA. Materiales y Métodos Se empleó la RT-PCR específica para el marco abierto de lectura 2 (MAL2), con el propósito de detectar el ARN-VHE en las 422 muestras estudiadas. Los productos amplificados fueron purificados, secuenciados y analizados filogenéticamente con el programa MEGA6. Resultados La presencia de ARN-VHE se detectó en 8,53% (36/422) de las muestras estudiadas. El mayor índice de positividad se identificó en la región occidental del país, específicamente en La Habana con 5,45% (23/422). En total se diagnosticaron 5,21% (22/422) muestras positivas al marcador de IgM VHA; la detección simultánea de marcadores del VHA-VHE fue 13,88% (5/36). Los resultados demuestran una mayor incidencia del VHE con respecto al VHA (8,53% vs 5,21%) y el análisis filogenético mostró la circulación del genotipo 1, subgenotipo 1d del VHE. Conclusiones Se corroboró la endemicidad del VHE en nuestro país y, por primera vez, se identificó el subgenotipo 1d, variante africana asociada a casos esporádicos y brotes de hepatitis E.

Abstract Introduction Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is mainly transmitted by the fecal-oral route and is one of the most important causes of acute viral hepatitis (AVH) around the world. In Cuba, Despite of endemic behavior of HEV in Cuba, its causality is not associated when a picture of enteric acute hepatitis is suspected. Objective Taking into account the common transmission route of both HEV and HAV, our aim was to estimate the incidence of HEV infection in sera samples received throughout the country during 2013 where the IgM anti-HAV test was required by the Clinician. Materials and Methods A specific RT-PCR for open reading frame 2 (ORF2) was used to detect RNA-HEV in 422 sera. The amplified products corresponding to ORF2 were purified, sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed using MEGA6 software program. Results RNA-HEV was detected in 8.53% (36/422) of the samples. The highest rate of positivity was identified in the Western region of the country, specifically in Havana 5.45% (23/422). IgM anti-HAV was detected in 5.21% (22/422) and simultaneous detection of both HAV and HEV was found in 13.88% (5/36) of the samples. The results showed a higher incidence of HEV with respect to HAV (8.53% vs 5.21%) and phylogenetic analysis showed the circulation of genotype 1, subgenotype 1d of the HEV. Conclusions This study corroborated the endemicity of HEV and for the first time the subgenotype 1d, the African variant strain associated to outbreak of hepatitis E, is reported in viral hepatitis cases in Cuba.

Evidence of hepatitis A virus circulation in central Argentina: seroprevalence and environmental surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis A virus (HAV) has shown intermediate endemicity in Argentina, but notification of clinical cases has decreased since the introduction of the vaccine in 2005. OBJECTIVES: In order to get insight into the local circulation of this virus after four years of the official introduction of the vaccine, the aims of this study were to provide information on HAV immune status of the adult population of Córdoba city and to conduct environmental surveillance of HAV in sewage and river samples in the same region. STUDY DESIGN: The prevalence of anti-HAV was determined by EIA in 416 samples of people (without prior vaccination) from Córdoba city (2009-2010). Spline regression models were estimated under generalized additive models. Environmental surveillance was conducted in river and sewage samples collected in the same period. Viral detection was performed by RT-Nested PCR of the 5'UTR. RESULTS: In Córdoba, the global prevalence of anti-HAV was 73.5%. It increased with age (p<0.0001) and it was associated with the low-income population (OR: 1.14; 95% CI 1.05-1.25). This prevalence decreased in younger age groups, especially in the high-income population. Environmental monitoring revealed the presence of HAV (IA) in 20.8% and 16.1% of wastewater and river samples, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: As a consequence of a decrease in HAV circulation due to improvements in immunization, socio-economic and hygienic conditions, young adults are becoming increasingly susceptible to HAV infections. Environmental monitoring demonstrated that HAV circulates in the local population; therefore, health care systems should consider the implementation of preventive measures for susceptible adults in order to reduce the risk of HAV infection.

Prevalence of hepatitis A virus in sea food in Iran / Prevalência de vírus da hepatite A em frutos do mar no Irã

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) in sea food samples in the Isfahan and Shahrekord townships in Iran. From September 2010 to April 2011, a total of 300 samples of fresh fish, shrimp, crab and lobster were obtained from randomly selected retail stores in the Isfahan and Shahrekord townships in Iran. The samples were tested for the presence of HAV using a reverse transcriptase- polymerase chain reaction method. Out of the total number of samples examined, 8 (2.7%) were found to be positive for HAV. This virus was detected in 5% and 1.7% of fresh fish and shrimp, respectively. This study shows the importance of sea food as potential sources of HAV infection in people in Iran.

O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a prevalência do vírus Hepatitis A (HAV) em amostras de frutos do mar nas cidades de Isfahan e Shahrekord no Iran. De setembro de 2010 a Abril de 2011 um total de 300 amostras de peixe fresco, camarão, caranguejo e lagosta foram obtidas de lojas de varejo aleatoriamente escolhidas nas cidades de Isfahan e Shahrekord no Iran. As amostras foram testadas para presença de HAV usando o método de reação em cadeia em transcriptase reversa. Do total de amostras examinadas, 8 (2.7%) foram positivas para HAV. Este vírus foi detectado em 5% e 1.7% de peixe fresco e camarão, respectivamente. Este estudo mostrou a importância de frutos do mar como fontes potenciais de infecção HAV em pessoas no Iran.

Prevalence of hepatitis A virus in sea food in Iran / Prevalência de vírus da hepatite A em frutos do mar no Irã

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) in sea food samples in the Isfahan and Shahrekord townships in Iran. From September 2010 to April 2011, a total of 300 samples of fresh fish, shrimp, crab and lobster were obtained from randomly selected retail stores in the Isfahan and Shahrekord townships in Iran. The samples were tested for the presence of HAV using a reverse transcriptase- polymerase chain reaction method. Out of the total number of samples examined, 8 (2.7%) were found to be positive for HAV. This virus was detected in 5% and 1.7% of fresh fish and shrimp, respectively. This study shows the importance of sea food as potential sources of HAV infection in people in Iran.(AU)

O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a prevalência do vírus Hepatitis A (HAV) em amostras de frutos do mar nas cidades de Isfahan e Shahrekord no Iran. De setembro de 2010 a Abril de 2011 um total de 300 amostras de peixe fresco, camarão, caranguejo e lagosta foram obtidas de lojas de varejo aleatoriamente escolhidas nas cidades de Isfahan e Shahrekord no Iran. As amostras foram testadas para presença de HAV usando o método de reação em cadeia em transcriptase reversa. Do total de amostras examinadas, 8 (2.7%) foram positivas para HAV. Este vírus foi detectado em 5% e 1.7% de peixe fresco e camarão, respectivamente. Este estudo mostrou a importância de frutos do mar como fontes potenciais de infecção HAV em pessoas no Iran.(AU)