Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae, Phlebotominae): Diversity of potential Leishmania vectors in northern Colombia.

Phlebotomine sand flies are critical vectors of Leishmania parasites, impacting public health significantly. This study focused on assessing the diversity of sand flies in a rural area of El Carmen de Bolívar Municipality, northern Colombia, employing rarefaction curves and Hill numbers to understand potential vector communities and inform environmental management. From January 2018 to April 2019 (five samplings), sand flies were collected using CDC light traps with blue LED in domestic/peridomestic/sylvatic ecotopes, identifying species per Young and Duncan (1994) and Galati (2003). Hill numbers provided diversity estimates across samples, while Principal Component Analysis correlated with environmental factors with phlebotomine species presence and abundance. 8,784 phlebotomine individuals were collected; 56.4 % females and 43.6% males (ratio 3:2). These individuals belonged to eight species: Pintomyia evansi, Psychodopygus panamensis, Lutzomyia gomezi, Micropygomyia cayennensis, Evandromyia dubitans, Psathyromyia aclydifera, Pintomyia serrana, and Pintomyia rangeliana; with Pi. evansi being the most abundant species (74.39 %; 6,530 exemplars). The ANOVA showed no significant differences between phlebotomine sand flies abundances across ecotopes (p = 0.018). Species of epidemiological relevance as Pi. evansi and Lu. gomezi not show a positive correlation with environmental variables evaluated, only Ps. panamensis was positively correlated with precipitation. However, the study emphasizes the need for a continuous sand fly monitoring and research to enhance leishmaniasis control strategies, highlighting the necessity to expand knowledge on phlebotomine diversity and environmental interactions to understand vector ecology and disease dynamics better.

Diversidad de aves en un gradiente altitudinal en la Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlán, México / Diversity of birds along an elevation gradient in the Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve, Mexico

Resumen Introducción: México concentra alrededor del 11 % de las especies de aves del mundo, de las cuales el 20 % son endémicas del país, concentrándose el mayor número en la región occidental. Objetivo: Analizar la composición, diversidad y distribución de la avifauna a lo largo de un gradiente altitudinal en el occidente de México. Métodos: La investigación se realizó en la Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlán. Registramos especies de aves vistas o escuchadas en 28 puntos de conteo fijos a lo largo de un gradiente de elevación de 1 000 m. La comparación de la riqueza y la completitud del muestreo se determinaron con curvas de interpolación y extrapolación. Las franjas se compararon con un Procedimiento no Paramétrico de Permutación Multirespuesta. Se usaron correlaciones y ordenaciones indirectas para analizar cambios en la riqueza y abundancia. Resultados: Registramos 129 especies (estimado: 96 % de completitud): 19 endémicas de México, 13 en alguna categoría de riesgo y 21 consideradas indicadoras. La elevación determinó la distribución y abundancia de las especies, y las franjas altitudinales más bajas, tuvieron los valores más altos de riqueza y abundancia. Conclusión: La mayor riqueza y abundancia de especies se registró a menor altitud, con un cambio significativo en la composición y tipo de especies indicadoras por franja.

Abstract Introduction: Mexico concentrates around 11 % of the world's bird species, of which 20 % are endemic to the country, with the highest number concentrated in the Western region. Objective: To analyze composition, diversity and avifaunal distribution along an elevation gradient in Western Mexico. Methods: The research was done in the Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve. We recorded seen or heard bird species in 28 fixed count points along a 1 000 m elevation gradient. Comparative richness and sampling completeness were determined with interpolation and extrapolation curves. Belts were compared with Non-Parametric Multi-Response Permutation. Correlations and indirect ordinations were used to analyze changes in richness and abundance. Results: We recorded 129 species (estimate: 96 % completeness): 19 endemics to Mexico, 13 in some risk category, and 21 considered indicators. Elevation determined the distribution and abundance of species, and the lower elevational bands, had the highest richness and abundance values. Conclusion: The highest species richness and abundance were recorded at lower elevations, with a significant change in composition and type of indicator species by belt. The numbers of endemic and at-risk species remained constant with elevation.

Quantifying phenological diversity: a framework based on Hill numbers theory.

Background: Despite the great concern triggered by the environmental crisis worldwide, the loss of temporal key functions and processes involved in biodiversity maintenance has received little attention. Species are restricted in their life cycles by environmental variables because of their physiological and behavioral properties; thus, the timing and duration of species' presence and their activities vary greatly between species within a community. Despite the ecological relevance of such variation, there is currently no measure that summarizes the key temporal aspects of biological diversity and allows comparisons of community phenological patterns. Here, we propose a measure that synthesizes variability of phenological patterns using the Hill numbers-based attribute diversity framework. Methods: We constructed a new phenological diversity measure based on the aforementioned framework through pairwise overlapping distances, which was supplemented with wavelet analysis. The Hill numbers approach was chosen as an adequate way to define a set of diversity values of different order q, a parameter that determines the sensitivity of the diversity measure to abundance. Wavelet transform analysis was used to model continuous variables from incomplete data sets for different phenophases. The new measure, which we call Phenological Hill numbers (PD), considers the decouplings of phenophases through an overlapping area value between pairs of species within the community. PD was first tested through simulations with varying overlap in phenophase magnitude and intensity and varying number of species, and then by using one real data set. Results: PD maintains the diversity patterns of order q as in any other diversity measure encompassed by the Hill numbers framework. Minimum PD values in the simulated data sets reflect a lack of differentiation in the phenological curves of the community over time; by contrast, the maximum PD values reflected the most diverse simulations in which phenological curves were equally distributed over time. PD values were consistent with the homogeneous distribution of the intensity and concurrence of phenophases over time, both in the simulated and the real data set. Discussion: PD provides an efficient, readily interpretable and comparable measure that summarizes the variety of phenological patterns observed in ecological communities. PD retains the diversity patterns of order q characteristic of all diversity measures encompassed by the distance-based Hill numbers framework. In addition, wavelet transform analysis proved useful for constructing a continuous phenological curve. This methodological approach to quantify phenological diversity produces simple and intuitive values for the examination of phenological diversity and can be widely applied to any taxon or community's phenological traits.

Composición de anuro-fauna asociada a la cuenca baja del río Bojabá (Cubará-Boyacá, Saravena-Arauca) / Composition of anuro-fauna associated to the Bojaba river lower basin (Cubara-Boyaca, Saravena-Arauca) / Composição de anuro-fauna associada na bacia baxia do rio Bojaba (Cubará-Boyacá, Saravena-Arauca)

Resumen Se realiza un análisis de la composición y diversidad de la fauna anura asociada a la cuenca baja del Río Bojabá, en los municipios de Saravena-Arauca y Cubará-Boyacá, se reseña aspectos de números de especies, índices de diversidad verdadera y números efectivos de Hill. El muestreo se realizó en septiembre de 2013 y marzo de 2014 con dos temporalidades climáticas diferentes, en coberturas de bosque de galería, sabana y humedales. Se registran 231 ejemplares de anfibios, distribuidos en cinco familias, 10 géneros y 18 especies, la diversidad observada de orden q=0, q=1 y q=2 explicó que los humedales es la cobertura más diversa, sin embargo, q=0 indica que los bosques de galería podrían alojar más diversidad. Las especies encontradas provienen de planicies llaneras con adaptaciones fisiológicas a los ecosistemas intervenidos y con comportamiento generalistas.

Abstract An analysis of the composition and diversity of anura fauna associated with the lower Bojabá River basin, in the municipalities of Saravena-Arauca and Cubara-Boyaca, is carried out. Aspects of species numbers, true diversity indices and effective Hill numbers are reviewed. The sampling was carried out in September 2013 and March 2014 with two different climatic temporalities in gallery forest coverages, savanna and wetlands. 231 amphibian individuals are registered, distributed in five families, 10 genera and 18 species, the observed diversity of order q = 0, q = 1 and q = 2 explained that wetlands are the most diverse coverage, however, q = 0 indicates that gallery forests could accommodate more diversity. The species found come from eastern savannas with physiological adaptations to the intervened ecosystems and with generalist behavior.

Resumo É realizada uma análise da composição e diversidade da fauna de anura associada à bacia inferior do rio Bojabá, nos municípios de Saravena-Arauca e Cubará-Boyacá, aspectos do número de espécies, índices verdadeiros de diversidade e números efetivos de Hill são revistos. A amostragem foi realizada em setembro de 2013 e março de 2014, com duas temporalidades climáticas diferentes na cobertura florestal de galeria, savana e pântanos, São registradas 231 espécimes de anfíbios, distribuídas em cinco famílias, 10 gêneros e 18 espécies, a diversidade observada de ordem q = 0, q = 1 e q = 2 explicou que os pântanos são a cobertura mais diversificada, no entanto, q = 0 indica que as florestas de galeria podem acomodar mais diversidade. As espécies encontradas são provenientes de planícies com adaptações fisiológicas aos ecossistemas intervenientes e com comportamento generalista.

Epiedaphic Ground Beetle (Carabidae) Diversity in Ecosystems Transformed by Plantations of Eucalyptus pellita in the Orinoco Region of Colombia.

Patterns of land use are changing dramatically in the Orinoco region of Colombia, including extensive commercial forestation of Pinus caribaea, Acacia mangium, and Eucalyptus pellita that are replacing savannas, with unknown consequences for biodiversity. We studied the effects of E. pellita plantations on the diversity of epiedaphic carabid beetles (Carabidae) sampled with pitfall traps at El Vita (Vichada) and Villanueva (Casanare). Furthermore, we assessed stand structure data (basal area, and canopy cover), and soil physical and chemical properties to explain differences in ground beetle composition using redundancy analysis (RDA). We compared diversity and species turnover using Hill numbers and Bray-Curtis dissimilarity, respectively. Low differences in richness were observed between savannas and plantations (at El Vita) and between pastures and plantations (at Villanueva). In general, carabid richness was significantly (not overlap in 95% confidence intervals) higher during the rainy season, and in young plantations than in other habitats. Variation in carabid species composition was mainly explained by a gradient of volumetric humidity, number of trees, basal area at El Vita and pH, nitrogen content of the soil, number of trees, soil clay content, and area of exposed ground at Villanueva. Thirteen carabid (which eight are commons in natural forests) species were identified as indicators of 3- and 14-year-old E. pellita plantations and pastures. Results suggest a strong response of ground beetles (Carabidae) to changes in land use, seasonality, and plantation age. Further research is needed to better understand how landscape heterogeneity, and distance to contiguous of natural habitats, influences biodiversity.

Populations and assemblages living on the edge: dung beetles responses to forests-pasture ecotones.

Edge effects alter insect biodiversity in several ways. However, we still have a limited understanding on simultaneous responses of ecological populations and assemblages to ecotones, especially in human modified landscapes. We analyze edge effects on dung beetle populations and assemblages between livestock pastures and native temperate forests (Juniperus and pine-oak forests (POFs)) to describe how species abundances and assemblage parameters respond to edge effects through gradients in forest-pasture ecotones. In Juniperus forest 13 species avoided the ecotones: six species showed greater abundance in forest interior and seven in pasturelands, while the other two species had a neutral response to the edge. In a different way, in POF we found five species avoiding the edge (four with greater abundance in pastures and only one in forest), two species had a neutral response, and two showed a unimodal pattern of abundance near to the edge. At the assemblage level edge effects are masked, as species richness, diversity, functional richness, functional evenness, and compositional incidence dissimilarity did not vary along forest-pasture ecotones. However, total abundance and functional divergence showed higher values in pastures in one of the two sampling localities. Also, assemblage similarity based on species' abundance showed a peak near to the edge in POF. We propose that conservation efforts in human-managed landscapes should focus on mitigating current and delayed edge effects. Ecotone management will be crucial in livestock dominated landscapes to conserve regional biodiversity and the environmental services carried out by dung beetles.

Nectar-living yeasts of a tropical host plant community: diversity and effects on community-wide floral nectar traits.

We characterize the diversity of nectar-living yeasts of a tropical host plant community at different hierarchical sampling levels, measure the associations between yeasts and nectariferous plants, and measure the effect of yeasts on nectar traits. Using a series of hierarchically nested sampling units, we extracted nectar from an assemblage of host plants that were representative of the diversity of life forms, flower shapes, and pollinator types in the tropical area of Yucatan, Mexico. Yeasts were isolated from single nectar samples; their DNA was identified, the yeast cell density was estimated, and the sugar composition and concentration of nectar were quantified using HPLC. In contrast to previous studies from temperate regions, the diversity of nectar-living yeasts in the plant community was characterized by a relatively high number of equally common species with low dominance. Analyses predict highly diverse nectar yeast communities in a relatively narrow range of tropical vegetation, suggesting that the diversity of yeasts will increase as the number of sampling units increases at the level of the species, genera, and botanical families of the hosts. Significant associations between specific yeast species and host plants were also detected; the interaction between yeasts and host plants impacted the effect of yeast cell density on nectar sugars. This study provides an overall picture of the diversity of nectar-living yeasts in tropical host plants and suggests that the key factor that affects the community-wide patterns of nectar traits is not nectar chemistry, but rather the type of yeasts interacting with host plants.

Taxonomic and functional divergence of tree assemblages in a fragmented tropical forest.

Tropical forests are being exposed to increasing levels of habitat loss and fragmentation, threatening the maintenance of global biodiversity. However, the effect that land-use change may have on the spatial dissimilarities in taxonomic and functional composition of remaining assemblages (i.e., taxonomic/functional ß-diversity) remains poorly understood. We examined a large vegetation database from an old and severely fragmented Atlantic forest landscape to test two alternative hypotheses: (1) tree assemblages experience a taxonomic and functional homogenization (reduced ß-diversity) between forest fragments and along forest edges, or alternatively, (2) these edge-affected forests show increased taxonomic and functional differentiation (increased ß-diversity) when compared to forest interior (reference) stands. Taxonomic and functional ß-diversity were examined via novel abundance-based metrics and considering functional traits related to plant dispersion, recruitment, and growth. Overall, taxonomic ß-diversity among fragments was significantly higher than among edge and reference plots. Edge plots also showed higher ß-diversity than reference plots, but only when considering dominant species. In functional terms, ß-diversity among reference plots was also lower than among forest fragments and among edge plots. These patterns support the landscape-divergence hypothesis, which postulates that variable human disturbances among forest fragments and along forest edges can lead to contrasting trajectories of vegetation changes, thus increasing the compositional and functional differentiation of tree communities in these emerging environments. Our results also show that such differentiation can preserve landscape-wide biodiversity, thus overriding negative effects of habitat fragmentation on local (α) diversity. Therefore, our findings demonstrate that forest fragments and forest edges can be more valuable for maintaining species diversity and ecosystem function in fragmented tropical landscapes than previously thought.

Effect of wetland management: are lentic wetlands refuges of plant-species diversity in the Andean-Orinoco Piedmont of Colombia?

Accelerated degradation of the wetlands and fragmentation of surrounding vegetation in the Andean-Orinoco Piedmont are the main threats to diversity and ecological integrity of these ecosystems; however, information on this topic is of limited availability. In this region, we evaluated the value of 37 lentic wetlands as reservoirs of woody and aquatic plants and analyzed diversity and changes in species composition within and among groups defined according to management given by: (1) type (swamps, heronries, rice fields, semi-natural lakes, constructed lakes and fish farms) and (2) origins (natural, mixed and artificial). A total of 506 plant species were recorded: 80% woody and 20% aquatic. Of these, 411 species (81%) were considered species typical of the area (Meta Piedmont distribution). Diversity patterns seem to be driven by high landscape heterogeneity and wetland management. The fish farms presented the highest diversity of woody plants, while swamps ranked highest for aquatic plant diversity. Regarding wetland origin, the artificial systems were the most diverse, but natural wetlands presented the highest diversity of typical species and can therefore be considered representative ecosystems at the regional scale. Our results suggest that lentic wetlands act as refuges for native vegetation of Meta Piedmont forest, hosting 55% of the woody of Piedmont species and 29% of the aquatic species of Orinoco basin. The wetlands showed a high species turnover and the results indicated that small wetlands (mean ± SD: size = 11 ± 18.7 ha), with a small area of surrounding forest (10 ± 8.6 ha) supported high local and regional plant diversity. To ensure long-term conservation of lentic wetlands, it is necessary to develop management and conservation strategies that take both natural and created wetlands into account.

Assessing the Ecological Response of Dung Beetles in an Agricultural Landscape Using Number of Individuals and Biomass in Diversity Measures.

The global increase in demand for productive land requires us to increase our knowledge of the value of agricultural landscapes for the management and conservation of biodiversity, particularly in tropical regions. Thus, comparative studies of how different community attributes respond to changes in land use under different levels of deforestation intensity would be useful. We analyzed patterns of dung beetle diversity in an Andean region dominated by sun-grown coffee. Diversity was estimated using two measures of species abundance (the number of individuals and biomass) and was compared among four types of vegetation cover (forest, riparian forest, sun-grown coffee, and pastures) in three landscape plots with different degrees of deforestation intensity (low, intermediate, and high). We found that dung beetle diversity patterns differed between types of vegetation cover and degree of deforestation, depending on whether the number of individuals or biomass was used. Based on biomass, inequality in the dung beetle community was lowest in the forest, and increased in the sun-grown coffee and pastures across all levels of deforestation, particularly for the increasing dominance of large species. The number of beetles and biomass indicate that the spatial dominance of sun-grown coffee does not necessarily imply the drastic impoverishment of dung beetle diversity. In fact, for these beetles, it would seem that the landscape studied has not yet crossed "a point of no return." This system offers a starting point for exploring biodiversity management and conservation options in the sun-grown coffee landscapes of the Colombian Andes.