Trabalhadoras migrantes latino-americanas e violências: rumo a uma visão interseccional? / Female Latin American migrant workers and violences: towards an intersectional perspective?

Resumo A história da sociedade latino-americana é influenciada pela colonização que subjugou, sobretudo, as mulheres não brancas às violências de gênero, ao racismo e ao sexismo. Este artigo tem por finalidade discutir o trabalho de migrantes latino-americanas a partir da abordagem interseccional, para se pensar nas realidades históricas e sociais de mulheres latinas, que se deslocam para a procura de emprego ou para escapar das violências sofridas no meio social. Mediante as contribuições da socióloga Patrícia Collins, são discutidos o conceito de interseccionalidade e os temas pertinentes às análises interseccionais (relacionalidade, relações de poder, desigualdade social, contexto social, a complexidade e justiça social). A interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica em construção aprofunda as análises das opressões vividas pelas trabalhadoras migrantes, como a xenofobia, o racismo, as inclinações ao trabalho escravizado e/ou à exploração sexual, as condições de trabalho precarizadas etc. Pensar nas violências sofridas pelas trabalhadoras latino-americanas sob a perspectiva interseccional é escutá-las, compreender suas resistências, visibilizar as ações coletivas e garantir que políticas públicas sejam implementadas, considerando as experiências e as perspectivas dessas trabalhadoras.

Abstract The history of Latin American society has been influenced by colonization, which has subjugated non-white women to gender violence, racism and sexism. This article discusses the work of female Latin American migrants through the lens of intersectionality to reflect upon the historical and social realities of Latin women who migrate in search of employment or to escape violence. Drawing upon the contributions of the sociologist Patricia Collins, this article discusses the concept of intersectionality and topics pertaining to intersectional analyses (relationality, power relations, social inequality, social context, complexity and social justice). As a critical social theory that is under construction, intersectionality deepens the analysis of oppressions experienced by female migrant workers, such as xenophobia, racism, slave labor, sexual exploitation and precarious working conditions. Thinking about the violence experienced by female Latin American workers from an intersectional perspective implies listening to these women, understanding their resistance, increasing the visibility of collective actions, and guaranteeing the implementation of public policies considering their experiences and perspectives.

Intention to Migrate Due to COVID-19: a Study for El Salvador.

Economic and social conditions have deteriorated worldwide during the COVID-19 pandemic. Migration theory and international organizations indicate that these increasingly fragile social conditions represent powerful incentives to migrate. Normally, studies addressing international migration and COVID-19 focus on transit and destination countries, with substantially less literature centered on origin nations. Trying to close that gap, the present article aims to identify and quantify economic determinants that explain the intention of Salvadorians to migrate abroad. Using a probabilistic sample and a logistic model, a number of renowned economic variables for migration studies were used to investigate Salvadorian's intention to emigrate. Results demonstrated a stark reduction in migration intentions in 2020. Moreover, the risk of losing one's job is by far the most prominent factor explaining the intention to migrate. Other aspects, such as employment and salaries, also showed statistically significant values. Additionally, results report women being less likely to migrate and age to have a negligible effect. The text concludes by indicating some public initiatives that could be implemented to support people who choose to act upon their intentions and embark on emigration.

The New System of Mexican Migration: The Role of Entry Mode-Specific Human and Social Capital.

Between 2000 and 2020, undocumented migration declined, temporary labor migration rose, and legal permanent residents arrived at a steady pace-together creating a new system of Mexico-U.S. migration based on the circulation of legal temporary workers and permanent residents. Drawing on data from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the Mexican Migration Project, we specify multinomial event-history models to predict the likelihood of departure on first and later trips via four entry categories: no documents, noncompliant tourist visas, temporary work visas, and legal residence visas. The models reveal how the accumulation of entry mode-specific social and human capital powered a system of undocumented migration that emerged between 1965 and 1985, and how that system deteriorated from 1985 to 2000. After 2000, employers took advantage of new visa categories to recruit legal temporary workers, leading to the accumulation of migration-related human and social capital specific to that mode of entry and the emergence of a new system of Mexico-U.S. migration.

Perceptions about malaria among Brazilian gold miners in an Amazonian border area: perspectives for malaria elimination strategies.

BACKGROUND: Mining in the Amazon exposes gold miners to various diseases, including malaria, whose control is still a major challenge. The environment of the mines contributes to the proliferation of vector mosquitoes and the precarious housing conditions facilitate transmission of the disease. Understanding gold miners' perceptions is essential for the formulation of strategies to fight malaria. A qualitative study was carried out in the municipality of Calçoene, state of Amapá, Brazilian Amazon adjointining the municipality of Oiapoque, that is in the border area with French Guiana and Suriname. METHODS: A semi-structured interview was applied to an intentional sample of 29 miners, a number determined by the theoretical saturation criterion. Thematic analysis was adopted to obtain the results and the Cohen's Kappa index was calculated to verify the agreement between observers during coding. RESULTS: The agreement between observers was verified by a Cohen's Kappa index of 0.82. Analysis of the interviews showed that gold miners were subjected to prejudice from the community due to forest diseases that they can transmit, and their activities are often associated with crime. When the miners return to their hometown after a period of mining, the urban population blames them for the onset of diseases such as malaria. Most participants in the survey did not know how malaria transmission occurs, and associated its occurrence with contaminated water and food. Participants reported not being afraid of the disease, trusting the diagnosis and available treatment, though this depends on where they are treated. The use of therapeutic resources, such as medicinal plants and medicines acquired in the illegal market, is very common in this population. Despite the challenges identified by the research subjects, they believe that the disease can be controlled, or the cases reduced, but there was low acceptability for a possible mass drug administration (MDA) intervention. CONCLUSION: Despite a recent reduction in malaria prevalence in Brazil, there are still vulnerable populations, such as gold miners, who help to perpetuate the existence of the disease in the Amazon. The lack of knowledge regarding how the transmission of malaria occurs, associated with myths regarding this and the use of traditional health practices and illegal drugs for the treatment of the disease without a specific diagnosis, jeopardizes the country's efforts to eliminate malaria. It is necessary to implement control programmes in these populations, especially those who frequently travel around the border region and to remote locations, which are difficult regions for health teams to access, thus hindering diagnostic and treatment actions. For this reason, understanding the perceptions of these individuals as well as their customs, beliefs and lifestyle, can assist in the production of targeted educational material and adoption of strategies in the elimination of malaria in the country.

Saúde e migração em Roraima: rede social migratória e impactos psicossociais na vida do migrante venezuelano enquanto trabalhador informal / Health and migration in Roraima: migratory social network and psychosocial impacts on life of the venezuelan migrant as an informal worker

Objetivo geral: caracterizar as condições do trabalho informal e seus impactos psicossociais na vida do migrante venezuelano. Métodos: trata­-se de um estudo descritivo de abordagem qualitativa e etnográfica. Resultados: A partir do levantamento sociodemográfico e da situação laboral, constatou-se a predominância de indivíduos jovens, exercendo atividade de vendedor ambulante no país de destino. A partir dos relatos, quanto a constituição da rede social migratória, apurou-se a participação familiar. Identificou-se ainda o sentimento de bem-estar e conformidade ao trabalhar no Brasil. Conclusão: a procura por trabalho tem sido um dos maiores motivos para se efetuar a travessia de fronteiras. Todavia, as escassas oportunidades de emprego induzem o migrante ao trabalho informal.

General objective: to characterize the conditions of informal work and their psychosocial impacts on the life of the Venezuelan migrant. Methods: This is a descriptive study of qualitative ethnographic approach. Results: From the sociodemographic survey and the employment situation, it was found the predominance of young individuals, working as a street vendor in the destination country. From the reports, regarding the constitution of the migratory social network, i t was found the family participation. The feeling of well­being and compliance is evident when working in Brazil. Conclusion: the search for work has been one of the biggest reasons for crossing borders. However, scarce employment opportunities induce migrants to work informally.

Liminal Living: Everyday Injury, Disability, and Instability among Migrant Mexican Women in Maryland's Seafood Industry.

Mexican women constitute an increasing proportion of labor migrants to the United States. They are segregated into a handful of low-wage occupations, disadvantaged by global economic forces and the social construction of gender within employment relations. Drawing on ethnographic research from Maryland's Eastern Shore, I explore experiences of everyday injury, disability, and instability among Mexican migrant women who work in the commercial crab processing industry, which is increasingly dependent on the H-2B visa program to fill seasonal, non-agricultural jobs. By focusing on the daily lives of Mexican migrant women who are part of this labor force, their health and social needs, and the gendered dimensions of labor migration, I document how temporary work programs institutionalize liminality as permanent mode of being. I suggest that migrant women, amid the extraordinary uncertainty brought about by the processes of recurrent migration, reorient and recalibrate themselves through modes of conduct to make life more ordinary.

Migration-related land use dynamics in increasingly hybrid peri-urban space: insights from two agricultural communities in Bolivia.

This article investigates the impact of transnational labor migration on agriculture in urbanizing communities in Bolivia. Previous research shows that the characteristics of rural out-migration communities affect whether agricultural practices are intensified and improved. Using a mixed methods approach, two closely located peri-urban communities with distinct prerequisites for agricultural development are analyzed. This study shows weak migration-induced changes in agriculture and concludes that transnational migration does not necessarily accelerate an ongoing urbanization process. It shows that remittances function to maintain farming for subsistence and as a secondary livelihood activity. However, major investments in agricultural intensification are not attractive due to the communities' proximity to the main cities. This article highlights the need for nuanced conceptualization when studying migration-driven agricultural change in hybrid peri-urban spaces.

Este artículo investiga el impacto de la migración laboral transnacional en la agricultura de comunidades en proceso de urbanización en Bolivia. Investigaciones anteriores muestran que las características de las comunidades rurales de donde provienen los migrantes inciden sobre la intensificación y mejora de las prácticas agrícolas. Utilizando un enfoque de métodos mixtos, se analizan dos comunidades periurbanas, geográficamente cercanas, y con prerrequisitos diferentes para el desarrollo agrícola. Este estudio muestra cambios débiles en la agricultura inducidos por la migración y concluye que la migración transnacional no necesariamente acelera el proceso creciente de urbanización. Muestra también que las remesas permiten mantener la agricultura como actividad secundaria para la subsistencia. Sin embargo, grandes inversiones en la intensificación agrícola no son atractivas, debido a la proximidad de las comunidades a las ciudades principales. Este artículo destaca la necesidad de una conceptualización matizada al momento de estudiar el cambio agrícola impulsado por la migración en espacios híbridos periurbanos.

El trabajo Infantil guatemalteco en los cafetales del Soconusco: Insumo que genera riqueza económica, pero nula valoración social / Guatemalan Child Workers in the Soconusco Coffee Farms: Income generating economic wealth but not social value

El Soconusco, Chiapas, desde hace más de un siglo, se ha convertidoen una región receptora de familias jornaleras, procedentes de los departamentos fronterizos de Guatemala. Los migrantes llegan en busca de empleo temporal a las fincas cafetaleras. En este artículo se pretende mostrar el trabajo que realizan los niños, niñas y adolescentes, las condiciones en las que lo hacen, la invisibilidad de su aporte y las consecuencias para su salud y educación. La investigación fue realizada en trece fincas cafetaleras de la región Suconusco, Chiapas, donde se aplicó un cuestionario a 453 jornaleros y jornaleras de quienes se obtuvo la información cuantitativa y catorce entrevistas a profundidad con las que se elaboraron los testimonios cualitativos. A través del análisis de los datos se puede observar la participación infantil y adolescente como migrantes y trabajadores o trabajadoras, tanto en el corte de café, como en las labores culturales de este producto y en las domésticas y de cuidado, así como la invisibilización de su aporte, ya que solo son reconocidos como “ayuda”; su papel es de acompañantes, sin derechos laborales y sociales, pero con efectos negativos para la salud y el acceso a la educación.

Do Rainfall Deficits Predict U.S.-bound Migration from Rural Mexico? Evidence from the Mexican Census.

Environmental and climatic changes have shaped human mobility for thousands of years and research on the migration-environment connection has proliferated in the past several years. Even so, little work has focused on Latin America or on international movement. Given rural Mexico's dependency on primary sector activities involving various natural resources, and the existence of well-established transnational migrant networks, we investigate the association between rainfall patterns and U.S.-bound migration from rural locales, a topic of increasing policy relevance. The New Economics of Labor Migration (NELM) theory provides background, positing that migration represents a household-level risk management strategy. We use data from the year 2000 Mexican census for rural localities and socioeconomic and state-level precipitation data provided by the Mexican National Institute for Statistics and Geography. Multilevel models assess the impact of rainfall change on household-level international out-migration while controlling for relevant sociodemographic and economic factors. A decrease in precipitation is significantly associated with U.S.-bound migration, but only for dry Mexican states. This finding suggests that programs and policies aimed at reducing Mexico-U.S. migration should seek to diminish the climate/weather vulnerability of rural Mexican households, for example by supporting sustainable irrigation systems and subsidizing drought-resistant crops.

Movement between Mexico and Canada: Analysis of a New Migration Stream.

In this analysis we use data from the Mexican Migration Project to contrast processes of Mexican migration to Canada and the United States. All migrants to Canada entered through the Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program and consistent with program criteria, migration there is strongly predicted by marital status and number of dependents, yielding a migrant population that is made up of males of prime labor-force age who are married and have multiple children at home. In contrast, the vast majority of migrants to the United States are undocumented and thus self-selected without regard to marital status or parenthood. Migration to the United States is strongly predicted by age, and migration probabilities display the age curve classically associated with labor migration. Within countries of destination, migrants to Canada enjoy superior labor market outcomes compared with those to the United States, with higher wages and more compact work schedules that yield higher earnings and shorter periods away from families compared with undocumented migrants to the United States. Labor migration to Canada also tends to operate as a circular flow with considerable repeat migration whereas undocumented migrants to the United States do not come and go so regularly, as crossing the Mexico-U.S. border has become increasingly difficult and costly.

[The Mexican farm workers' program in Canada: a comparison with the U.S. experience]. / El Programa de Trabajadores Agricolas Mexicanos con Canada: un contraste frente a la experiencia con Estados Unidos.

PIP: "This article describes the main features of an international worker program which has been operating for over twenty-five years, although it been hitherto largely unknown. The article focuses on the economic changes undergone by Canada, which led to the need to supplement its seasonal labor requirements with Caribbean and Mexican temporary workers.... Data on the Canadian program has shown that it has satisfactorily supplemented certain farm work requirements without experiencing any problems that could demerit its success, despite the number of years it has been operating." (EXCERPT)^ieng

From the Alps to Atitlan: Italian emigration to Guatemala, 1870-1945.

PIP: "Based on interviews and archival research, this paper traces Italian immigration to Guatemala from 1870 to the immediate post-war period. The author notes that among European immigrants, Italians and Spaniards were favored by most Guatemalan governments because they were viewed as more likely to assimilate.... In a country where the majority indigenous population was considered an obstacle to progress, Italians were looked upon favorably, as skilled workers who would develop the country's agriculture, commerce, and industry." (EXCERPT)^ieng

[Labor migration to the United States by natives from the State of Mexico]. / Migracion laboral hacia Estados Unidos de los oriundos del Estado de Mexico.

PIP: Based primarily on data from the Encuesta sobre Migracion en la Frontera Norte de Mexico, results of a study of international migration from the Mexican state of Mexico to the United States over time are presented The author notes that from 1942 to 1964, labor migration between the two countries was organized under an agreement between the two governments concerned. However, since that agreement ended, an increasing volume of illegal labor migration has occurred in response to the economic situation. Attention is given to migrant characteristics, the characteristics of illegal immigrants deported back to Mexico, and migrant remittances.^ieng

China's "tidal wave" of migrant labor: what can we learn from Mexican undocumented migration to the United States?

"The purpose of this article is to place Chinese labor migration from agriculture within the context of the literature on labor mobility in developing countries by comparing it to undocumented Mexican migration to the United States. The similarities fall within three general areas: the migration process, the economic and social position of migrants at their destination, and the agrarian structure and process of agricultural development that has perpetuated circular migration. The last section of the article draws upon these similarities, as well as differences between the two countries, to generate predictions concerning the development of labor migration in China."

Refugee remittances: conceptual issues and the Cuban and Nicaraguan experiences.

"This article assesses the notion that the determinants of remittances generated by refugee flows, particularly from Communist-inspired systems, are different from those associated with labor migrations....These differences have a major bearing on how labor migrants and refugees perceive their relationship with countries of origin. The propensity of labor migrants to dissociate themselves from the home country is considerably less than among refugees whose perceptions are mediated by opposition to the ruling regime and other factors, such as political relations between refugee-sending and refugee-receiving countries and whether or not there has been a regime change or one is expected to occur. The conceptual issues elaborated here are based on the Cuban-American experience, but also reflect an assessment of Nicaraguan emigration during the 1980s."

Survey of condom-related beliefs, behaviors, and perceived social norms in Mexican migrant laborers.

This study reports findings from a survey of condom-related beliefs, behaviors, and perceived social norms in Mexican migrant laborers that live and work in the United States for extended periods of time. Snowball sampling was used to recruit 501 Mexican migrants from five "sending towns" in Jalisco, Mexico, with historically high rates of out-migration to the United States. Results showed that subjects reported few negative beliefs about condom use and high efficacy to use condoms in challenging sexual situations but social norms sanctioning condoms were limited. Results also revealed mixed knowledge of HIV transmission, poor knowledge of condom use, and higher condom use with occasional versus regular sex partners. Forty-four percent of male migrants reported sex with prostitutes while in the U.S., with married men reporting less condoms use with prostitutes than single men. It was concluded that condom promotion efforts with Mexican migrants should concentrate on men to encourage consistent use with occasional sex partners, including prostitutes. AIDS prevention education should be provided with sensitivity to the language needs, limited education, and extreme social and geographic marginality of this highly underresearched Latino population.

[Migrants from bordering countries in the labor force of the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires, 1980-1996]. / Migrantes limitrofes en el mercado de trabajo del area metropolitana de Buenos Aires, 1980-1996.

PIP: Data from the 1991 Argentine census indicate that migrants from neighboring countries at that date were maintaining patterns of entry into the labor force of Buenos Aires consistent with past tendencies. Migrants tended to be employed in less skilled manufacturing industries, construction, commerce, and domestic work, often filling positions rejected by the native population because of low wages and poor working conditions. Profound changes in the Argentine economy since 1991 have included rising unemployment and underemployment and a loss of productive jobs in industry and construction. A comparison of the occupational structure of migrants from neighboring countries and of the total population for the years 1980, 1991, and 1996 demonstrates that important changes in sectorial employment have occurred among both the native and immigrant populations, with the immigrant population increasingly relegated to ever smaller sectors of the labor market offering less attractive employment. Nearly half of the 841,697 persons immigrating in 1991 from countries bordering Argentina settled in the Buenos Aires metropolitan region, comprising 42.8% of foreigners in the metropolitan area and 3.7% of the total regional population. Of the population from border countries residing in Buenos Aires, 43% are Paraguayan, 28% Uruguayan, 15% Bolivian, 12% Chilean, and 2% Brazilian. The unemployment rate in Buenos Aires fluctuated between 4% and 6% during 1974-92, but it rose to 10.6% in 1993 and then to 18% in 1996. The underemployment rate rose from 4.6% in 1983 to 8.2% in 1993 and 12.6% in 1996.^ieng

[Demographic dynamics, migrants from bordering countries and economic activity in Buenos Aires]. / Dinamica demografica, migracion limitrofe y actividad economica en Buenos Aires.

PIP: The growth and changes--by age, sex, and place of birth--in the structure of the total population of the Buenos Aires metropolitan area and of the subpopulation over 15 years of age and economically active are analyzed for the decade of the 1980s. Study of the economic participation of migrants and its possible influence on levels of employment or unemployment should be carried out within the framework of changes in the population's structure and economic participation. The 1981 and 1991 censuses and the Permanent Survey of Households were the sources of data. Immigration to Argentina has declined considerably in recent years, but it is still a factor in the population growth of metropolitan Buenos Aires. Between the 1981 and 1991 censuses, the population aged 15 and over grew by 10.9/1000, or a total of 827,806 people. Migrants from bordering countries increased in number (by 85,109, or 10.3%) and in proportion to the total population (from 3.9% to 4.6%). Migrant women increased at the highest rate (30.1/1000). The greatest growth occurred among men aged 40 and over and among women aged 35 and over. The growth of the economically active population over age 15 for different groups of national origin, sex, and age showed much greater heterogeneity. In 1991, women from bordering countries represented 3.8% of all women in metropolitan Buenos Aires but 5.7% of the total economically active female population and nearly 7% of the economically active female population aged 35 and over. Women from neighboring countries were responsible for 10.3% of the growth in the economically active female population aged 30-34 and 40-44 between 1981 and 1991. The absolute and relative increases in migrants from neighboring countries and their greater economic participation tend to increase the general level of economic activity.^ieng

From labor circulation to international migration: the case of south-central Ecuador.

PIP: "This paper describes the process, patterns, and scale of the international emigration phenomenon from south-central Ecuador. The phenomenon is placed in the historical context of agrarian change and patterns of migration/circulation in the sierra, drawing on field work from two subregions in Canar Province and linking it to Ecuadorian census and Immigration and Naturalization data." (EXCERPT)^ieng

[Migration of Mexicans to the United States: patterns of continuity and change]. / La migracion de Mexicanos a Estados Unidos: patrones de continuidad y cambio.

PIP: Mexican migration to the US has been a constant feature since the past century, and it is currently one of the most contentious issues on the bilateral agenda. The forces behind the migratory system include the inability of the Mexican economy to absorb all available labor; the demand for Mexican workers in the US agricultural, industrial, and service sectors; the wage differential; the tradition of migration to the US; and the operation of complex social and family networks linking places of origin and of destination. The predominant migratory pattern in the 1960s was a largely circular flow of rural Mexicans originating in a relatively small number of communities in a few states to work temporarily in US agriculture. The flow has become increasingly complex and heterogeneous, with regional, occupational, and sectorial diversification, a much greater presence of migrants of urban origin, and a greater tendency toward long or permanent stays. Recent surveys showed that 95% of short-term migrants crossing the border to the US were male and 70% were aged 12-34 years. The average educational level was 6.2 years, and two-thirds had previous work experience in Mexico. Only about 52% were from traditional places of origin, and 55% were urban. About half were bound for California, but the importance of Texas as a destination was increasing due to stepped-up border patrols in California. 75% hoped to stay in the US longer than 6 months. Two-thirds had previous migratory experience in the US, and two-thirds had no travel or work documents. The annual net migration to the US increased from about 26,000-29,000 in the 1960s to around 300,000 in the first half of the 1990s. 55% of Mexicans residing in the US are male and 70% are aged 15-44 years. 75% of Mexicans over age 25 residing in the US had a high school education or less, and two-thirds aged 16 or over are economically active, with 11% unemployed, 80% earning less than $20,000/year, and 35% living in poverty. A significant proportion receive some type of support from social welfare programs in the US.^ieng