Development and evaluation of portable NIR technology for the identification and quantification of Australian illicit drugs.

The efficient and accurate analysis of illicit drugs remains a constant challenge in Australia given the high volume of drugs trafficked into and around the country. Portable drug testing technologies facilitate the decentralisation of the forensic laboratory and enable analytical data to be acted upon more efficiently. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy combined with chemometric modelling (machine learning algorithms) has been highlighted as a portable drug testing technology that is rapid and accurate. However, its effectiveness depends upon a database of chemically relevant specimens that are representative of the market. There are chemical differences between drugs in different countries that need to be incorporated into the database to ensure accurate chemometric model prediction. This study aimed to optimise and assess the implementation of NIR spectroscopy combined with machine learning models to rapidly identify and quantify illicit drugs within an Australian context. The MicroNIR (Viavi Solutions Inc.) was used to scan 608 illicit drug specimens seized by the Australian Federal Police comprising of mainly crystalline methamphetamine hydrochloride (HCl), cocaine HCl, and heroin HCl. A number of other traditional drugs, new psychoactive substances and adulterants were also scanned to assess selectivity. The 3673 NIR scans were compared to the identity and quantification values obtained from a reference laboratory in order to assess the proficiency of the chemometric models. The identification of crystalline methamphetamine HCl, cocaine HCl, and heroin HCl specimens was highly accurate, with accuracy rates of 98.4 %, 97.5 %, and 99.2 %, respectively. The sensitivity of these three drugs was more varied with heroin HCl identification being the least sensitive (methamphetamine = 96.6 %, cocaine = 93.5 % and heroin = 91.3 %). For these three drugs, the NIR technology provided accurate quantification, with 99 % of values falling within the relative uncertainty of ±15 %. The MicroNIR with NIRLAB infrastructure has demonstrated to provide accurate results in real-time with clear operational applications. There is potential to improve informed decision-making, safety, efficiency and effectiveness of frontline and proactive policing within Australia.

Resident perspectives on a pre-booking diversion program.

Numerous cities are experimenting with pre-booking diversion programs that allow police officers to divert community members to supportive services in instances that would otherwise result in arrest and prosecution. These programs aim to decrease harmful involvement with the criminal justice system while reducing crime and public disorder. Although previous research has explored the experiences of people receiving diversion referrals and of police officers initiating them, none have examined the perspectives of community members who can offer crucial insights into planning, evaluation, and implementation barriers. We administered a survey to 293 people living in four police districts where the Philadelphia Police Department operates a pre-booking diversion program. The survey explored residents' perspectives on the program as well as their broader views on associated issues like decriminalization of substance use, sex work, and minor theft. Bivariate χ2 tests and multivariate logistic regression examined differences in responses between subgroups. Perspectives were diverse and varied based on demographic attributes of the respondents as well as on district level attributes, like crime patterns. Most surveyed community members perceived pre-booking diversion to be a valuable tool for improving the experiences and outcomes of policing. However, residents living in areas with more crime and with more public disorder held significantly less positive perspectives. Their skepticism may reflect the possibility that pre-booking diversion and similar reforms are necessary but not sufficient to transforming individual health and public safety in some areas.

The prevalence of selected licit and illicit drugs in drug facilitated sexual assaults.

Little is known about the prevalence of incapacitating substances present in drug facilitated sexual assaults (DFSA). Presented here is a literature review conducted to provide background information, such as symptoms, exacerbations, and drug interactions, on drugs typically implicated in DFSA, namely gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD), ketamine, diazepam, oxycodone, methamphetamine, and alcohol. Literature found through Scopus and Pubmed was reviewed to determine the current prevalence of these substances in DFSA with a focus on Australian data. The global literature revealed that there is a wide variety of substances used in DFSA and the prevalence varied by country. For example, it was found that in Northern Ireland, opioids were most prevalent whereas in France, benzodiazepines were most prevalent. In Australia the review revealed a lack of contemporary data with the most recent report in Victoria using data collected during 2011-2013. The literature also revealed there can be an important difference between self-reported substance use and substances discovered via toxicological analysis. This can be due to the challenges of biological detection, reliability of self-reporting, and the possibility of a substance being introduced to a person's food or drink without their knowledge. This review highlights the need for the collection and analysis of current data pertaining to DFSA reports and the drugs detected, and due to the constantly evolving picture of both licit and illicit drug use an assessment of the role of prescription medications in DFSA due to drug-drug interactions as well as potential to incapacitate is warranted.

Rethinking scientific communication in courts: A question of credibility.

The high value placed on forensic information in the criminal justice process is demonstrated by the fallout resulting when questions are raised as to the validity of methods used, deficiencies in the understanding of the limitations of results, or uncertainties around the professional expertise or ethical practices of the provider of the information. To effectively act as the "speaker" for the scientific evidence in court, forensic science needs to have credibility. The workshop "Rethinking scientific communication in courts" held at the Australian National University College of Law in November 2023 explored the subject of science communication in the legal context through the lens of philosophy, law, forensic service provision and meta-science, demonstrating the unique challenges placed on the field of forensic science as a scientific profession confined and defined within a non-scientific system. Stemming from the discussions at the workshop, this paper examines the notion of credibility in science, how forensic science aligns with the hallmarks of a credible scientific community and the influence this has on our understandings of scientific communication in courts.

Logistics and Interdisciplinary Expertise of a Sexual Assault Response Team: A Case Study Through Observations and Interviews.

To more effectively respond to sexual assault in the United States, some jurisdictions have created sexual assault response teams (SARTs). SARTs involve members of multiple agencies tasked with responding to sexual assault within a jurisdiction, such as law enforcement, advocates, prosecutors, and sexual assault nurse examiners (SANEs). Despite hundreds of jurisdictions utilizing SARTs, and the Department of Justice establishing guidelines, SARTs vary across jurisdictions in their form and function. To clarify this, the current research outlines two studies to better understand the logistics and functioning of one SART. In Study 1, for over nearly 2 years, SART meetings were observed and notes were taken on representation of agencies, time spent on cases, and possible challenges. Overall, the SART met consistently, with representation of major stakeholders at each meeting. Stakeholder agencies remained consistent and most time spent in the meetings was on case review. In Study 2, 10 members of SART were interviewed to assess perceptions of SART. These interviews were independently qualitatively coded for both factual and thematic codes. Areas of focus included perceived logistics of the SART and expertise of members that make up an effective SART. Overall, on average, members had been part of the SART for 3.5 years, felt required to attend the meetings as part of their role, and shared that all members (i.e., law enforcement, district attorney, victim advocates, and SANEs) had expertise on differing subjects that effectively made the SART work well. Importantly, qualitative perceptions from members of the SART (Study 2) lined up with the independent observation of SART meetings (Study 1). Ultimately, the results from this body of research could delineate specific actions that a jurisdiction implementing a SART could utilize.

Epidemiology of drug arrests in the United States: Evidence from the national survey on drug use and health, 2015-2019.

OBJECTIVE: Following changes to drug criminalization policies, we re-examine the epidemiology of drug arrests among people who use drugs (PWUD) in the U.S. METHODS: Serial cross-sectional data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (2015-2019) were utilized. Past-year illicit drug use (excluding cannabis) and drug arrests were described by year, area of residence, drug use characteristics and participant demographics. Adjusted associations between race and drug arrest were estimated using multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: Past-year illicit drug use remained consistent over time and was highest among non-Hispanic (NH) white respondents. Of those reporting past-year illicit drug use (n = 25,429), prevalence of drug arrests remained stable over time overall and in metro areas while increasing in non-metro areas. Arrests were elevated among NH Black participants and those with lower income, unemployment, housing transience, non-metro area residence, polysubstance use, history of drug injection, substance use dependence and past-year drug selling. Adjusted odds of drug arrest remained significantly higher among NH Black individuals [aOR 1.92, 95% CI 1.30, 2.84]. CONCLUSION: Despite recent shifts away from punitive drug policies, we detected no reduction in drug arrests nationally and increasing prevalence in non-metro areas. Despite reporting the lowest level of illicit substance use and drug selling, NH Black individuals had significantly increased odds of arrest across years. Findings highlight the need for further examination of policy implementation and policing practices in different settings, with more research focused non-metro areas, to address enduring structural racism in drug enforcement and its consequences for health.

"What I should be doing is harm reduction, if I'm doing my job right": Engagement with harm reduction principles among prosecutors enacting drug policy reform in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Prosecutorial discretion to pursue or decline criminal charges is a powerful mechanism determining criminal justice outcomes among people who use drugs (PWUD). In the US, prosecutors are increasingly employing this tool to prevent arrest, incarceration, and subsequent health and social harms among PWUD. Many cite harm reduction as a basis for these reforms; however, the extent of prosecutors' knowledge and understanding of harm reduction principles, and how they are operationalized in the policy process, remains unclear. METHODS: We assess references to and application of harm reduction in the policy design and implementation process of prosecutorial drug policy reform in 14 US jurisdictions. In-depth-interviews (N = 16) were conducted with elected prosecutors and their policy staff from November 2021-April 2022. Through initial structured analysis, policymakers' understanding and utilization of the term 'harm reduction' emerged as a salient theme which we conducted secondary thematic analysis to further explore. RESULTS: While all participants identified as progressive, there was wide variation in their ideologies, policy provisions, and engagement with harm reduction principles. Eleven participants explicitly referred to 'reducing harms of drug use' or 'harm reduction' as guiding their policy approach; the remainder did not invoke 'harm reduction' by name but highlighted relevant concepts like racial equity and 'public health approaches' as core policy tenets. While some prosecutors demonstrated familiarity with traditional harm reduction principles (meeting PWUD where they are, reducing harms to them), others focused on harm to the wider community (the 'public,' businesses, etc). Invocation of harm reduction was not always consistent with specific policy provisions: prosecutors implemented policies ranging from unconditional non-prosecution of drug possession to diversion, some of which were odds with core harm reduction principles of dignity and justice (i.e., involving coercive treatment incentives/requirements). CONCLUSIONS: As prosecutors shift their approach to redress the harms caused by drug criminalization, clarity is needed on what a harm reduction approach to using discretionary powers entails. Targeting reform-minded prosecutors with messaging on the principles, evidence base, and best practices of harm reduction is merited.

Algorithmic crime prevention. From abstract police to precision policing.

The growing digitisation in our society also affects policing, which tends to make use of increasingly refined algorithmic tools based on abstract technologies. But the abstraction of technology, we argue, does not necessarily entail an increase in abstraction of police work. This paper contrasts the 'abstract police' debate with an analysis of police practices that use digital technologies to achieve greater precision. While the notion of abstract police assumes that computerisation distances police officers from their community, our empirical investigation of a geo-analysis unit in a German Land Office of Criminal Investigation shows that the adoption of abstract procedures does not by itself imply a detachment from local reference and community contact. What we call contextual reference can be productively combined with the impersonality and anonymity of algorithmic procedures, leading also to more effective and focused forms of collaboration with local entities. On the basis of our empirical results, we suggest a more nuanced understanding of the digitalisation of police work. Rather than leading to a progressive estrangement from the community of reference, the use of digital techniques can enable experimentation with innovative forms of 'precision policing', particularly in the field of crime prevention.

"Because I Was a Criminal and Drug Addict.": Experiences of Anti-Black Gendered Racism and Reproductive Injustice Among Black Pregnant and Postpartum Women with a Substance Use Disorder and Incarceration and Family Policing Histories.

Racism pervades the US criminal legal and family policing systems, particularly impacting cases involving women with a history of a substance use disorder (SUD). Laws criminalizing SUD during pregnancy disproportionately harm Black women, as do family policing policies around family separation. Discrimination within intersecting systems may deter Black pregnant women with a SUD from seeking evidence-based pregnancy and substance use care. This convergent parallel mixed-methods study aimed to illuminate how systemic oppression influenced the lived experiences of Black mothers with a SUD, facing dual involvement in the criminal legal and family policing systems. Using convenience and snowball sampling techniques, we recruited 15 Black mothers who were incarcerated, used substances while pregnant, and had a history with family policing systems. We conducted semi-structured interviews and developed and distributed a scale questionnaire to describe participants' experiences navigating overlapping systems of surveillance and control. Drawing on models of systemic anti-Black racism and sexism and reproductive justice, we assessed participants' experiences of racism and gender-based violence within these oppressive systems. Participants described how intersecting systems of surveillance and control impeded their prenatal care, recovery, and abilities to parent their children in gender and racially specific ways. Although they mostly detailed experiences of interpersonal discriminatory treatment, particularly from custody staff while incarcerated and pregnant, participants highlighted instances of systemic anti-Black gendered racism and obstetric racism while accessing prenatal care and substance use treatment in carceral and community settings. Their narratives emphasize the need for action to measure and address the upstream macro-level systems perpetuating inequities.

Homophobic beliefs and attitudes among mid-adolescent boys: exploring the ideas of hybrid masculinities.

Introduction: Homophobia is well-documented as key to social regulation of masculine behavior and practices in Western settings. Yet, empirical data from a number of Western settings has shown a decline in overt homophobic attitudes in the past decade, leading some to suggest that the nature of masculinities is also changing. However, theorizing on the changing nature of masculinities among adolescents has received limited quantitative attention. Research is needed to better understand shifts in adolescent masculinities in contemporary Western settings. Methods: In this paper, we investigate the application of one newer approach to explore masculinities in context - hybrid masculinities - in a sample of cisgender, heterosexual, mid-adolescent boys in one province in Western Canada (N = 873, mean age (SD) = 14.39 (0.37)). Data were collected from nine cohorts of grade 9 youth over a 10-year period (2013-2022) as part of the baseline survey of an ongoing evaluation of a gender-transformative healthy relationships program. Results and discussion: We hypothesized that if the ideas of hybrid masculinities held in our sample, we would find that overt homophobic attitudes and adherence to related patriarchal norms (e.g., avoidance of femininity) would decline over this period, but that the use of homophobic name-calling would remain differentiated in terms of to whom it was directed (e.g., a friend, someone they thought was gay). We did find a significant decline in homophobic attitudes and norms related to emotional restriction and avoidance of femininity over the 10-year period, but also found that homophobic name-calling remained differentiated, with significantly higher name-calling toward a friend than toward someone the youth thought was gay. Thus, our hypotheses were supported. We discuss the implications of our findings for future theory and research on understanding adolescent masculinities in context.

Do digital technologies reduce racially biased reporting? Evidence from NYPD administrative data.

Recent work has emphasized the disproportionate bias faced by minorities when interacting with law enforcement. However, research on the topic has been hampered by biased sampling in administrative data, namely that records of police interactions with citizens only reflect information on the civilians that police elect to investigate, and not civilians that police observe but do not investigate. In this work, we address a related bias in administrative police data which has received less empirical attention, namely reporting biases around investigations that have taken place. Further, we investigate whether digital monitoring tools help mitigate this reporting bias. To do so, we examine changes in reports of interactions between law enforcement and citizens in the wake of the New York City Police Department's replacement of analog memo books with mobile smartphones. Results from a staggered difference in differences estimation indicate a significant increase in reports of citizen stops once the new smartphones are deployed. Importantly, we observe that the rise is driven by increased reports of "unproductive" stops, stops involving non-White citizens, and stops occurring in areas characterized by a greater concentration of crime and non-White residents. These results reinforce the recent observation that prior work has likely underestimated the extent of racial bias in policing. Further, they highlight that the implementation of digital monitoring tools can mitigate the issue to some extent.

"You Have to Be a Doctor First": Trauma Surgeons' Perspectives on Police Interactions in the Hospital.

BACKGROUND: Police activity in emergency medical settings has been shown to complicate the care of patients and impact patient-provider relationships. Recent scholarship has called for clear hospital policy outlining the terms of police access to patients and the role of clinicians. Despite regular contact between trauma surgeons and police, research on the impact of police activity on trauma care has been limited. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with attending trauma surgeons and general surgery residents (N = 13) at 3 urban hospitals about their interactions with police in clinical settings. Participants were recruited using snowball sampling. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed for recurrent themes using an iterative grounded theory process. RESULTS: Participants reported routine contact with police that required active negotiation of the scope of clinical and police authority in the hospital. These negotiations were shaped by prior experiences, perceptions of police, officer behavior, and institutional culture. Surgeons felt compelled to advocate for patients, but reported intimidation in moments of conflict. Participants noted uncertainty around the legal dimensions of their relationship to police and a lack of universal guidance on appropriate responses. DISCUSSION: This data points to the need for improvements in both policy and workflow to regulate and reduce the burden of these interactions and protect clinicians' priorities from being subordinated to those of police. Further research is needed to understand how police presence impacts patient outcomes, and to guide best practices for regulating and mitigating potential negative impact.

Emerging models of de facto drug policy reforms in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Health and human rights organizations have endorsed drug decriminalization to promote public health-oriented approaches to substance use. In the US, policymakers have begun to pursue this via prosecutorial discretion-or the decision by a prosecutor to decline criminal charges for drug possession in their jurisdiction. This study characterizes drivers of adoption, policy design and implementation processes, and barriers to impact and sustainability of this approach to inform evolving policy efforts promoting the health of people who use drugs (PWUD). METHODS: We conducted n=22 key informant interviews with policymakers and national policy experts representing 13 jurisdictions implementing de facto drug policy reforms. Analyses were informed by the Exploration, Preparation, Implementation and Sustainment (EPIS) framework and analyzed using a hybrid inductive-deductive approach. RESULTS: Drivers of policy adoption included racial inequities, perceived failures of criminalization, and desires to prioritize violent crime given resource constraints. Three distinct policy typologies are described with varying conditions for eligibility, linkage to services, and policy transparency and dissemination. Public misinformation, police resistance and political opposition were seen as threats to sustainability. CONCLUSIONS: Given evidence that criminalization amplifies drug-related harms, many policymakers are adopting de facto drug policy reforms in the absence of formal legislation. This is the first study to systematically describe relevant implementation processes and emerging policy models. Findings have implications for designing rigorous evaluations on health outcomes and informing sustainable evidence-based policies to promote health and racial equity of PWUD in the US.

Increasing disclosures of older adult maltreatment: a review of best practices for interviewing older adult eyewitnesses and victims.

The current article provides a contemporary review of the best practices for interviewing older adults about crimes they witnessed or experienced. Specifically, we provide a detailed overview of how investigators can use a range of interviewing adaptations and procedures to acquire detailed and accurate maltreatment disclosures from older adults. In addition to discussing well-established investigative interviewing practices (e.g. rapport building, free-recall, cognitive instructions and prompts), this article also summarizes more recent literature on the benefits of multidisciplinary investigations, use of assistive technology and interview accommodations, along with effective practices for working with minority and marginalized older adults. Lastly, several research, professional and policy recommendations are provided for supporting older adults during investigative interviews.

The police hunch: the Bayesian brain, active inference, and the free energy principle in action.

In the realm of law enforcement, the "police hunch" has long been a mysterious but crucial aspect of decision-making. Drawing on the developing framework of Active Inference from cognitive science, this theoretical article examines the genesis, mechanics, and implications of the police hunch. It argues that hunches - often vital in high-stakes situations - should not be described as mere intuitions, but as intricate products of our mind's generative models. These models, shaped by observations of the social world and assimilated and enacted through active inference, seek to reduce surprise and make hunches an indispensable tool for officers, in exactly the same way that hypotheses are indispensable for scientists. However, the predictive validity of hunches is influenced by a range of factors, including experience and bias, thus warranting critical examination of their reliability. This article not only explores the formation of police hunches but also provides practical insights for officers and researchers on how to harness the power of active inference to fully understand policing decisions and subsequently explore new avenues for future research.

'It has gotten a lot better, but it is still bad': Experiences with the police among marginalized PWUDs in a context of depenalization.

Based on a survey (n = 249) and qualitative interviews (n = 38) with marginalized people who use drugs (PWUDs) in Copenhagen, Denmark, we investigate the experiences of this group with the police in a context where drug possession had been depenalized in and around drug consumption rooms (DCRs). Our findings point to positive experiences with the police, especially with the local community police in the depenalization zone, who refrained from drug law enforcement and practiced 'harm reduction policing.' However, marginalized PWUDs also reported that they were still targeted for drug possession by other sections of the police despite the depenalization policy. Specifically, the drug squad of the police would continue to confiscate illicit drugs for investigatory purposes to counter organized drug crime, as well as continue to target user-dealers who were not formally included in the depenalization policy. The findings illustrate how marginalized PWUDs still found themselves in a precarious legal situation without any legal rights to possess the drugs that they were dependent on, even though possession of drugs had been depenalized in and around DCRs.

Fatal Police Shootings of Victims with Mental Health Crises: A Descriptive Analysis of Data from the 2014-2015 National Violent Death Reporting System.

One in five fatal police shooting victims may have been experiencing a mental health crisis (MHC) at the time of their death [1]. We use data on fatal police shootings from the National Violent Death Reporting System (2014-2015) to (a) identify incidents where the victim is reported to have experienced an MHC at the time of their death, (b) describe the characteristics of these incidents, and (c) compare the characteristics of MHC to fatal police shootings where the victim was not experiencing an MHC at the time of their death. We systematically coded 633 fatal police shootings from 27 states. Descriptive statistics characterized fatal police shootings, including victim characteristics; their mental health status; and contextual information regarding the police encounter (e.g., reason for police call). Overall, 203 of 633 fatal police encounters (32%) involved victims who showed signs of an MHC at the time of their death. Victims were predominantly white, male, and in possession of a firearm. In 3 of 4 cases, the MHC manifested as suicidal ideation despite any relevant documented history among most victims. Among half of suicidal victims, suicidal ideation was expressed verbally and in-person to a family member/intimate partner who subsequently called the police. Dispatch was aware of the MHC in 1 of 4 of total police calls. Overall, fatal police encounters involving those experiencing an MHC accounted for 1 in 3 of our caseloads. Approximately, 3 of 4 mental health calls involved a suicidal person who mainly expressed intent to a loved one in-person.

(Mis)Perceptions of the Use of Deadly Force by Police: Exploring the Role of Social Media Consumption.

Recent high-profile uses of deadly force by police in the United States and elsewhere have been the subject of extensive media coverage and social unrest. In turn, researchers have exhibited nascent interest in the factors that influence the use of deadly force by police, as well as vignette-driven studies of circumstances in which deadly force is believed to be acceptable. Less attention has been paid to perceptions of the frequency with which deadly force is used, proportion that is legal and necessary, to what extent its use varies by race, or how these beliefs are shaped by media consumption. Using survey methodology, we examine the perceptions of 458 respondents from the Southeastern United States in relation to the frequency with which deadly force is used, proportion that is legal and necessary, to what extent its use varies by race, and how these beliefs are shaped by social media consumption net of the effects of personal demographics and experiences. Our findings indicate the majority of respondents drastically overestimate both the frequency with which police use deadly force and the proportion of incidents involving suspects who are people of color, while underestimating the proportion of incidents that are legally justified and necessary. These perceptions are influenced, in part, by social media consumption but the effects vary in direction and significance by social media platform.

The impact of pseudoephedrine regulation at Australian pharmacies through Project Stop: A narrative review.

ISSUES: Project Stop, a real-time monitoring program for pseudoephedrine-containing medicines, was initiated in 2005 by the Pharmacy Guild of Australia in collaboration with police in the state of Queensland. The program implemented an online database to record pseudoephedrine purchases (and attempted purchases) to prevent large-scale diversion to methamphetamine production. APPROACH: This narrative review aims to understand the overall impact of Project Stop, what evidence exists for this kind of intervention in Australia, and what lessons can be learned from its introduction. Systematic database searches were conducted in Embase, PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar, with 20 relevant sources selected for inclusion. KEY FINDINGS: Project Stop successfully prevented some pseudoephedrine from being diverted from pharmacies to methamphetamine production. The intervention has been most effective in jurisdictions that made the program mandatory. Project Stop was also associated with a temporary decline in clandestine laboratory seizures in Queensland, changes in methamphetamine production methods and reduced voluntary treatment admissions for methamphetamine use. Implementation was not associated with an appreciable effect on secondary indicators, such as methamphetamine production and harmful use. IMPLICATIONS: Future applications of a Project Stop model must ensure ongoing impact evaluation, assessment of its effect on individual's drug-related behaviour and combine it with policies that address drug use as a health issue. CONCLUSION: Project Stop has been narrowly successful in terms of reducing pseudoephedrine diversion and demonstrates the potential for third-party policing practices directed at the consumer level, in collaboration with healthcare practitioners, rather than only regulating precursor wholesalers.