Genetic variability of the 16S rRNA gene of Nocardia brasiliensis, the most common causative agent of actinomycetoma in Latin America and the Caribbean

ABSTRACT Mycetoma is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2016. It is characterized by the progressive growth of nodules and granulomatous lesions on the legs, arms, and trunk. It is potentially disfiguring and causes disability or amputations in working-age people from marginalized areas. The causative agents can be fungi (eumycetoma) or actinobacteria (actinomycetoma), the latter being the most common in America and Asia. Nocardia brasiliensis is the most important causal agent of actinomycetoma in the Americas. Taxonomic problems have been reported when identifying this species, so this study aimed to detect the 16S rRNA gene variations in N. brasiliensis strains using an in silico enzymatic restriction technique. The study included strains from clinical cases of actinomycetoma in Mexico, isolated from humans and previously identified as N. brasiliensis by traditional methods. The strains were characterized microscopically and macroscopically, then subjected to DNA extraction and amplification of the 16S rRNA gene by PCR. The amplification products were sequenced, and consensus sequences were constructed and used for genetic identification and in silico restriction enzyme analysis with the New England BioLabs® NEBcutter program. All study strains were molecularly identified as N. brasiliensis; however, in silico restriction analysis detected a diversity in the restriction patterns that were finally grouped and subclassified into 7 ribotypes. This finding confirms the existence of subgroups within N. brasiliensis. The results support the need to consider N. brasiliensis as a complex species.

Case report: Mycetoma caused by Gordonia soli

ABSTRACT Mycetoma is a neglected tropical disease caused by fungi (eumycetoma) or bacteria (actinomycetoma), with high morbidity. Gordonia spp. are gram-positive bacteria that have previously been reported to cause mycetoma. Here, we report a case of Gordonia soli (initially misidentified as Nocardia spp.) as the etiological agent of actinomycetoma in a 64-year-old patient. After a literature search in the Cochrane Library, LILACS, SciELO, MEDLINE, PubMed, and PubMed Central databases, we concluded that this is the first case report of mycetoma caused by Gordonia soli. The current case highlights the importance of microbiological diagnosis of mycetoma and the challenges in its management.

Micetoma por Nocardia asteroides / Nocardia Asteroids Mycetoma

Introducción: En 1860 Henry Van Carter introdujo la definición del micetoma y desde 1884 se reportan los primeros casos en África (Sudán, Senegal). Estas infecciones afectan la piel, el tejido celular subcutáneo y, en ocasiones, los músculos, los huesos, y pueden diseminarse por la cavidad torácica, la abdominal, y por otras regiones del cuerpo. Objetivo: Presentar un caso de micetoma por Nocardia asteroides con evolución desfavorable y tratamiento. Presentación del caso: Paciente masculino de 47 años de edad que sufrió hace 18 años un trauma en la rodilla izquierda con herida avulsiva y evolución desfavorable por infección. Diez años después presentó en el mismo sitio múltiples lesiones fistulosas con drenaje activo, secreción serohemática escasa y no fétida. En varias ocasiones fue llevado al salón de operaciones para realizarle debridamientos quirúrgicos y toillete y recibió múltiples tratamientos antibióticos y antifúngicos. Se concluyó el caso como un micetoma y se aisló una Nocardia asteroides. El paciente estuvo en desacuerdo con la amputación de la extremidad como tratamiento quirúrgico definitivo. Llegó a nuestro centro en octubre del 2020 con mal estado general y extensión severa del proceso infeccioso en toda la extremidad. Se planificó una hemipelvectomía como tratamiento definitivo, pero desafortunadamente el paciente falleció antes, debido a complicaciones generales. Conclusiones: Ante la aparición del micetoma es importante definir el alcance de la infección para determinar el tipo de tratamiento a utilizar, ya que bien empleado y de forma oportuna, puede salvar la vida al paciente sin dejar graves secuelas(AU)

Introduction: In 1860, Henry Van Carter introduced the definition of mycetoma and since 1884 the first cases have been reported in Africa (Sudan, Senegal). These infections affect the skin, the subcutaneous cellular tissue and, sometimes, the muscles, the bones, and it can spread throughout the thoracic cavity, the abdominal cavity, and other regions of the body. Objective: To report a case of mycetoma due to nocardia asteroides with unfavorable evolution and treatment. Case report: We report the case of a 47-year-old male patient who suffered a left knee trauma 18 years ago with an avulsive wound and unfavorable evolution due to infection. Ten years later, he presented, in the same site, multiple fistulous lesions with active drainage, scant serohematic, non-fetid secretion. On several occasions he was taken to the operating room for surgical debridement and toilette and he received multiple antibiotic and antifungal treatments. The case was concluded as a mycetoma. Nocardia asteroides was isolated. The patient disagreed with limb amputation as definitive surgical treatment. He came to our treatment center in October 2020 with poor general condition and severe extension of the infectious process throughout the limb. A hemipelvectomy was planned as definitive treatment, but unfortunately the patient deceased before due to general complications. Conclusions: Before the appearance of mycetoma, it is important to define the extent of the infection to determine the type of treatment to use, since it can save the patient's life if properly used and in a timely manner without leaving serious sequelae(AU)

Actinomycetoma by Actinomadura madurae. Clinical and therapeutic characteristics of 18 cases with two treatment modalities.

BACKGROUND: Actinomycetoma due to Actinomadura madurae is susceptible to numerous chemotherapeutic agents, however, the response to those treatments is variable and closely related to several factors. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to evaluate the clinical-therapeutic characteristics of patients with actinomycetoma due to Actinomadura madurae with two treatment modalities. METHODS: This was a retrospective study of eighteen patients with a diagnosis of actinomycetoma. The most widely used therapeutic scheme was streptomycin 1 g every third day plus TMP/SMX 800 mg/160 mg/12h, followed by TMP/SMX with DDS 100 mg/day. In six patients (33%), ciprofloxacin 500 mg every 12 h was used instead of DDS. RESULTS: Conventional scheme achieved clinical and mycological cure in 58% of the cases, improvement in 16%, and 25% of the patients failed to treatment; in the cases treated with ciprofloxacin, clinical and microbiological cure was achieved in 83% of patients and clinical improvement in 16%. The treatment time to achieve clinical and mycological did not have a statistically significant difference (median 10 ± 1.38 vs. 12 ± 4.6). CONCLUSION: Treatment based on streptomycin + TMP/SMX with ciprofloxacin was found to be effective in treating patients with actinomycetoma, and comparable to the conventional treatment with DDS in actinomycetoma due to A. madurae with minimal bone involvement.

Actinomycetoma by Actinomadura madurae: Clinical Characteristics and Treatment of 47 Cases.

CONTEXT: Mycetoma is a chronic, granulomatous disease caused by fungi (eumycetoma) or aerobic filamentous actinomycetes (actinomycetoma). Actinomadura madurae is one of the most frequent actinomycetes. AIM: The study aims to provide an update on clinical, diagnostic, therapeutic, and outcome data for patients with actinomycetoma in a single center in Mexico. SETTINGS AND DESIGN: This was a retrospective study of 47 cases diagnosed with actinomycetoma. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The cases were selected from a total of 536 mycetoma obtained during 35 years (from 1985 to 2019). Clinical data were retrieved from the clinical records of our department. Microbiological data were obtained from our Mycology laboratory. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Frequencies and percentages were used for categorical variables. Normality was determined with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. We used means and medians to describe the variables. RESULTS: Forty-seven patients with actinomycetoma were included; female:male ratio 1.9:1; median age 38 years. The foot was the most affected region in 76.5% of cases. The bone invasion was observed in 89%. The time between symptoms onset and diagnosis was 5.5 years. Grain detection by direct examination was positive in 95% of cases. The most commonly used, as well as the most effective treatment scheme was streptomycin + sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim with dapsone. Sixty-three percent (30 patients) achieved clinical and mycological cure, and 10.6% (5 patients) had treatment failure. CONCLUSIONS: We highlight the importance of designing therapeutic strategies to standardize treatments and gain more experience to improve the care of these patients.

Nitric oxide determines the development of actinomycetoma by Nocardia brasiliensis in eNOS knockout C57BL/6 mice.

Mycetoma is a chronic human infectious disease that produces severe deformation frequently in the lower extremities. Etiological agents include fungi (eumycetoma) and bacteria (actinomycetoma) that produce similar clinical and microscopic changes. The clinical appearance includes swelling, abscesses, ulcers, scars and sinuses that drain purulent material with microbe microcolonies. The pathogenesis of actinomycetoma has been studied mainly in rodents. Using this approach, it was found that Nocardia brasiliensis produces proteases that may play a role in tissue damage, as well as immunosuppressive molecules, such as brasilicardin A. Nitric oxide (NO) is a molecule with biological activities depending on its local concentration. Its effect on killing intracellular bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been known for decades. NO plays an important role in innate and adaptive immunity. It can promote or suppress some biological activities despite its short half-ife. NO is produced by three different nitric oxide synthases (NOS). We used the genetic blockade of eNOS in C57BL/6 mice to demonstrate the role of NO in actinomycetoma development. Inflammation and actinomycetoma were prevented in genetically modified mice infected with N. brasiliensis. T cell proliferation was increased in these rodents, and antibody production, IL-6 and IL-10 expression were similar and TNF-α was lower.

Mycetoma and the Community Dermatology Program, Mexico.

The Community Dermatology Program established in the state of Guerrero, Mexico for almost 30 y provides an adaptable method of detecting and monitoring skin neglected tropical diseases such as mycetoma, which is endemic in the state. The program utilises general and thematic teaching elements combined with distance learning through teledermatology, direct patient consultations and close collaboration with community teams. Using this approach, a picture of mycetoma in Guerrero has emerged, with a focal hot spot located in the southern part of the state in the Costa Chica region. Although in much of Mexico Nocardia infections dominate, in this area there are also substantial numbers of cases of eumycetoma. This combined approach provides a means of early case detection and long-term surveillance through targeted use of a small specialist team.

Human actinomycetoma caused by Actinomadura mexicana in Sudan: the first report.

Mycetoma is a localized, chronic, granulomatous disease that can be caused by fungi (eumycetoma) or bacteria (actinomycetoma). Of the 70 different causative agents implicated in mycetoma worldwide, Actinomadura madurae is the only one that causes multiple cases on all continents. Recently, new Actinomadura species were described as causative agents of human mycetoma. One of these new causative agents was Actinomadura mexicana, which was identified in Latin America. Here we demonstrate that this causative agent is not confined to Latin America and that it is also a causative agent of actinomycetoma in Sudan. The disease was managed by antibiotic treatment alone and resulted in complete cure after 6 months of treatment, which is quick when compared with actinomycetoma cases caused by other Actinomadura species.

Actinomycetoma Caused by Actinomadura mexicana, A Neglected Entity in the Caribbean.

Mycetoma is a chronic infection that is slow to develop and heal. It can be caused by fungi (eumycetoma) or bacteria (actinomycetoma). We describe a case of actinomycetoma caused by Actinomadura mexicana in the Caribbean region.

Actinomicetoma plantar en un paciente sin factores de riesgo / Plantar actinomycetoma in a patient without risk factors

Resumen Se presenta un caso clínico de un actinomicetoma plantar en un paciente sin factores de riesgo, cuyo diagnóstico fue realizado mediante una biopsia de tejido plantar por sospecha de una neoplasia. Dado que el paciente no respondió satisfactoriamente a la terapia de primera línea, debió completar 24 semanas de tratamiento con doxiciclina, a lo cual evolucionó favorablemente. Finalmente, se desarrolla una breve discusión sobre los micetomas plantares.

A case of plantar actinomycetoma without risk factors is presented, which was diagnosed by hystopatological analysis of a foot biopsy because of the suspicion of neoplasia. Since the patient did not fully respond to the first-line therapy antibiotics, a 24-weeks doxycycline regime was started, achieving a satisfactory response. Finally, a brief discussion on plantar mycetomas is presented.

Diagnosis and Management of Fungal Neglected Tropical Diseases In Community Settings-Mycetoma and Sporotrichosis.

BACKGROUND: This is a retrospective, analytic observational study where we describe cases of sporotrichosis and mycetoma from Acapulco General Hospital and Community Dermatology Mexico C.A. over 25 years. Analysis of environmental features that favour the development of such diseases has been made, as well as the limitations in the study and treatment of such diseases in resource poor settings. METHODS: We reviewed the information on 76 sporotrichosis and 113 mycetoma patients out of a total of 14,000 consultations at Acapulco General Hospital and from Community Dermatology clinics. We analysed the epidemiological and mycological characteristics and the investigations used for diagnosis such as direct examination, culture, intradermal test reactions, and biopsy. RESULTS: In total 91 confirmed cases of actinomycetoma, 22 of eumycetoma and 76 of sporotrichosis have been identified including diagnostic studies for both diseases and their treatment. DISCUSSION: The results obtained have been analysed and interpreted in patients with mycetoma and sporotrichosis in the state of Guerrero, México, along with limitations in their management in areas with limited economic and logistical resources. The prevalence of mycetoma in our setting is compared with other centres where patients from all over the country are seen. The possible causes for variations in prevalence in specific areas has been looked for, in one of the poorest states of the Mexican Republic.

Keratinocyte infection by Actinomadura madurae triggers an inflammatory response.

BACKGROUND: Actinomycetoma is a syndrome of the skin characterized by chronic inflammation and lesions with nodular grain-like structures. The most common aetiological agents are Nocardia brasiliensis and Actinomadura madurae. In response to infection with these organisms the body produces an inflammatory immune response in the skin. The aim of the present study was to determine the production of chemokines, pro-inflammatory cytokines, antimicrobial peptides and the expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in keratinocytes infected by A. madurae. METHODS: A cell line of HaCaT keratinocytes was infected with A. madurae at a multiplicity of infection of 20:1 for 2 h and the samples were collected from 2 to 72 h post-infection. Intracellular replication of the bacterium was evaluated by counting of colony-forming units, the TLR expression and antimicrobial peptide production were assayed by confocal microscopy and chemokine and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: Early in the infection, A. madurae was able to achieve intracellular replication in keratinocytes, however, the cells eventually controlled the infection. In response to the infection, keratinocytes overexpressed TLR2 and TLR6, produced high concentrations of cytokines monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interleukin 8, human ß-defensin-1, human ß-defensin-2 and LL37 and low levels of tumour necrosis factor α. CONCLUSIONS: The human keratinocytes contribute to the inflammatory process in response to A. madurae infection by overexpressing TLRs and producing chemokines, pro-inflammatory cytokines and antimicrobial peptides.

Actinomicetoma torácico con afección pulmonar. Tratamiento con carbapenémico y aminoglucósido / Thoracic actinomycetoma with lung compromise. Treatment with carbapenem and aminoglycoside

Resumen: El actinomicetoma, infección crónica, granulomatosa y progresiva de la piel y tejido celular subcutáneo que afecta más las extremidades inferiores y en especial los pies, se caracteriza por la tríada de trayectos fistulosos, aumento de volumen y granos. La afección en el tórax en México ocupa el segundo lugar en cuanto a frecuencia. Sin embargo, el daño pulmonar es muy raro, afecta menos de 1% de los casos, éste puede ocurrir por continuidad al afectar el tronco, lo que causa tratamientos antimicrobianos prolongados con falta de apego a los mismos, así como aumento de la mortalidad. El objetivo de este artículo es comunicar un caso clínico de actinomicetoma pulmonar, así como la respuesta al tratamiento prescrito a este paciente con base en carbapenémicos, aminoglucósidos y trimetoprim con sulfametoxazol.

Abstract: Actinomycetoma is a chronic, granulomatous and progressive infection of the skin and subcutaneous cellular tissue that affects the lower limbs and especially the feet, characterized by triad of localized swelling, draining sinuses and grains. The chest condition in Mexico ranks second in frequency. Nevertheless, pulmonary affectation is very rare with less than 1%, this can occur by continuity affecting the trunk leading to prolonged antimicrobial therapy and lack of attachment to it, as well as increased mortality. The aim of this paper is to report a case of pulmonary actinomycetoma as well as response to treatment with carbapenems, aminoglycoside and trimethoprim with sulfamethoxazole.

Non-Coding RNAs are Differentially Expressed by Nocardia brasiliensis in Vitro and in Experimental Actinomycetoma.

INTRODUCTION: Nocardia spp. are common soil-inhabiting bacteria that frequently infect humans through traumatic injuries or inhalation routes and cause infections, such as actinomycetoma and nocardiosis, respectively. Nocardia brasiliensis is the main aetiological agent of actinomycetoma in various countries. Many bacterial non-coding RNAs are regulators of genes associated with virulence factors. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this work was to identify non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) expressed during infection conditions and in free-living form (in vitro) in Nocardia brasiliensis. METHODS AND RESULT: The N. brasiliensis transcriptome (predominately < 200 nucleotides) was determined by RNA next-generation sequencing in both conditions. A total of seventy ncRNAs were identified in both conditions. Among these ncRNAs, 18 were differentially expressed, 12 were located within intergenic regions, and 2 were encoded as antisense of 2 different genes. Finally, 10 of these ncRNAs were studied by rapid amplification of cDNA ends and/or quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Interestingly, 3 transcripts corresponded to tRNA-derived fragments (tRNAsCys, Met, Thr), and one transcript was overlapped between an intergenic region and the 5´end of the 23S rRNA. Expression of these last four transcripts was increased during N. brasiliensis infection compared with the in vitro conditions. CONCLUSION: The results of this work suggest a possible role for these transcripts in the regulation of virulence genes in actinomycetoma pathogenesis.

Actinomicetoma en el embarazo. Reporte de un caso: ¿Qué hacer y cómo tratarlo? / Actinomycetoma in pregnancy. Case report: what to do, how to handle?

Resumen ANTECEDENTES: El micetoma es una infección causada por hongos y actinomicetos aeróbicos. Es un padecimiento frecuente en México, con mayor afectación en hombres que en mujeres (3:1). Se caracteriza por aumento de volumen, deformidad del sistio de lesión y formación de fístulas. OBJETIVO: Reportar un caso de actinomicetoma durante el embarazo y analizar el protocolo de tratamiento. CASO CLINICO: Paciente de 29 años de edad, en su cuarto embarazo, con 29 semanas de gestación. El padecimiento se inició 13 años atrás, con dermatosis localizada en la extremidad inferior izquierda, constituida por un nódulo indoloro, que permaneció sin cambios hasta el inicio de la gestación actual, cuando le aparecieron múltiples lesiones nodulares y fístulas. En el examen directo de la secreción se observaron granos y en el cultivo se identificó Nocardia brasiliensis. Después del embarazo a término y con recién nacido sano, si indicó lactancia durante 4 meses y se interrumpió para prescribir bromocriptina. La dermatosis se extendió al doble, sin afectación ósea; se indicó tratamiento con sulfametoxazol-trimetoprima y dapsona. El tiempo total de tratamiento fue de 15 meses y seguimiento sin medicación durante un año. Se obtuvo curación clínica y microbiológica. CONCLUSIONES: El micetoma en mujeres embarazadas es excepcional. La mayor parte de los portocolos de tratamiento deben contraindicarse durante el embarazo. Cuando el micetoma se localiza en una zona que no afecta otros órganos ni se extiende, se sugiere continuar el embarazo y la lactancia sin prescripción de medicamentos pero iniciarla posterior al nacimiento.

Abstract BACKGROUND: Mycetoma is an infection caused by fungi and aerobic actinomycetes. It is a frequent condition in Mexico; it presents less in women than men (1:3). It is characterized by increased volume deformity of the region and sinuses. OBJECTIVE: We present a case of actinomycetoma in a pregnant patient and to analyze the behavior in its therapeutic management CLINICAL CASE: We present female, 29 years old, attending her fourth pregnancy at 29 weeks of gestation. It began 13 years ago with a localized dermatosis of the lower left limb, constituted by a painless nodule, remained unchanged until the beginning of the current gestation, developed multiple nodules and sinuses. A direct examination of the secretion was performed, observing grains, Nocardia brasiliensis was identified. After product birth, lactation was allowed for 4 months and discontinued with bromocriptine. The dermatosis extended to double without bone affection, treatment with sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim + dapsone was given. Total time was 15 months and follow-up without medication for one year. Clinical and microbiological cure was achieved. CONCLUSIONS: The development of mycetoma in pregnant women is rare, it is important to know the etiology, in eumycetoma all the antimycotics are teratogenic and in actinomycetoma most antibiotics cannot be used in pregnancy with some exceptions. If mycetoma is located in an area that does not compromise other organs or does not spread it is best to leave the course of pregnancy and lactation and then start treatment.

Activation and IL-1ß secretion of human peripheral phagocytes infected with Actinomadura madurae, Nocardia asteroides and Candida albicans.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the ability of Actinomadura madurae (A. madurae) and Nocardia asteroides (N. asteroides), using Candida albicans (C. albicans) as prototypic control, to elicit the activation and IL-1ß secretion of blood phagocytic cells from healthy donors. METHODS: Microscopic evaluation of phagocytosis/activation, cell viability and spectrophotometric quantitation of endocytosis/activation, were assessed by using formazan blue test in human blood phagocytes infected with C. albicans, A. madurae or N. asteroides treated with either normal human serum (NHS) or with decomplemented NHS. Interlukin-1ß from culture supernatants of infected polymorphonuclear was tested by ELISA kit assay. RESULTS: Microscopic assay showed that phagocytosis and activation of adherent mononuclear phagocytes were greater with C. albicans followed by A. madurae and then by N. asteroides. Spectrophotometric assay in polymorphonuclear phagocytes infected with NHS-treated pathogens indicated that activation was similarly higher by C. albicans and A. madurae and lower by N. asteroides. Kinetic assays in infected polymorphonuclear cells showed that viability was decreased by C. albicans and N. asteroides or unaffected with A. madurae. Levels of IL-1ß at 8 h of incubation were higher with C. albicans followed by A. madurae whereas lower levels were found with N. asteroides. CONCLUSIONS: The extent of cell-viability and activation as well IL-1ß secretion may be related with the virulence of C. albicans and N. asteroides and other parameters remain to be explored for assessing the virulence of A. madurae.

Immunomodulatory effect of diethylcarbamazine in mice infected with Nocardia brasiliensis.

We tested whether diethylcarbamazine (DEC) or ivermectin (IVM), both antiparasitic drugs with reported immunomodulatory properties, were able to affect the immune system to potentiate host defense mechanisms and protect against actinomycetoma in a mouse model. Male BALB/c mice of 10-12 weeks of age were injected with either Nocardia brasiliensis or saline solution. Recorded were the effects of a treatment by DEC (6 mg/kg per os daily for one week) or IVM (200 µg/kg subcutaneously on days 1 and 3) on (i) the development of mycetoma lesion, (ii) the expression of reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI) by phagocytes, (iii) the proliferation index of lymphocytes and (iv) antibody production of IgG and IgM. After an initial lesion in all mice, DEC inhibited a full development and progression of actinomycetoma resulting in a reduced lesion size (p < 0.001). IVM had no inhibitory effect on the development of mycetoma. Furthermore, DEC treatment was associated with a significant enhancement of ROI expression (p < 0.05) by polymorphonuclear neutrophils at day 3 after infection. Lymphocyte proliferation in response to N. brasiliensis antigens and concanavalin A in DEC-treated group was higher than in non-treated group at day 21 and 28 postinfection (p < 0.01). Significant changes in antibody response were not observed. By all parameters tested, DEC was superior to IVM regarding immunostimulatory potency. In conclusion, DEC expressed an in vivo influence on the immune status during the infection by N. brasiliensis leading to retrogression of the mycetoma and increasing cellular immune responses. Our findings may indicate a potential use of DEC as a putative adjuvant in infectious disease or vaccination.

Micetoma: [revisión] / Mycetoma: [review]

El micetoma es una enfermedad crónica, inflamatoria, subcutánea y granulomatosa, causada por diferentes especies de hongos (eumicetoma), actinomicetos (actinomicetoma) o bacterias como Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Botriomicosis). Esta patología ocurre entre latitudes15 al sur y 30 Norte y es endémica en áreas relativamente áridas. Los microorganismos causales están presentes en el suelo y pueden entrar al tejido subcutáneo por inoculación traumática. El micetoma comúnmente afecta adultos entre 20 y 40 años, predominantemente hombres. El pie es el sitio más comúnmente afectado. El micetoma se presenta como una inflamación subcutánea progresiva. Se desarrollan múltiples nódulos, los cuales supuran y drenan a través de senos, descargando granos durante la fase activa de la enfermedad. El diagnóstico se basa en radiología, imágenes ultrasónicas, citología, cultivo e inmunodiagnóstico. El actinomicetoma es susceptible a tratamiento antibiótico prolongado, preferiblemente con varias medicaciones. El Eumicetoma se trata con excisión quirúrgica agresiva combinada con tratamiento médico y la botriomicosis se trata con antibióticos una vez establecido el diagnóstico, ojalá con aislamiento del agente causal.

Mycetoma is a chronic, granulomatous, subcutaneous, inflammatory disease caused by different fangal species (Eumycetoma), actinomycetes (Actimonycetoma), or bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, (Botryomycosis). It occurs between the latitudes of 15 South and 30. North and is endemic in relatively arid areas. The organisms are present in the soil and may enter the subcutaneous tissue by traumatic inoculation. Mycetoma commonly affects adults aged 20 to 40 years, predominantly males. The foot is most commonly affected. Mycetoma presents itself as progressive, subcutaneous swelling. Multiple nodules develop which may supúrate and drain through sinuses, discharging grains during the active phase of the disease. Diagnosis may involve radiology, ultrasonic imaging, cytology, culture, histology, or immunodiagnosis. Actinomycetoma is amenable to prolonged treatment by antibiotics, preferably by combining several medications. Eumycetoma is usually treated by aggressive surgical excision combined with medical treatment and Botryomycosis is treated with antibiotics upon establushment of the diagnosis preferably after isolation of the causal agent.