Predator-prey interactions across hunting mode, spatial domain size, and habitat complexities.

Predator-prey interactions are a fundamental part of community ecology, yet the relative importance of consumptive and nonconsumptive effects (NCEs) (defined as a risk-induced response that alters prey fitness) has not been resolved. Theory suggests that the emergence and subsequent predominance of consumptive or NCEs depend on the given habitat's complexity as well as predator hunting mode and spatial domain sizes of both predator and prey, but their relative influence on the outcome of predator-prey interactions is unknown. We built agent-based models in NetLogo to simulate predator-prey interactions for three hunting modes-sit-and-wait, sit-and-pursue, and active-while concurrently simulating large versus small spatial domain sizes for both predators and prey. We studied (1) how hunting mode and spatial domain size interact to influence the emergence of consumptive or NCEs and (2) how, when NCEs do dominate, hunting mode and spatial domain separately or additively determine prey shifts in time, space, and habitat use. Our results indicate consumptive effects only dominate for active predators when prey habitat domains overlap completely with the predator's spatial domain and when sit-and-wait and sit-and-pursue predators and their prey both have large spatial domains. Prey are most likely to survive when they shift their time but most frequently shift their habitat. Our paper helps to better understand the underlying mechanisms that drive consumptive or NCEs to be most dominant.

Qingbo, a common cyprinid fish, responds diversely in behavior and locomotion to predators with different hunting modes.

Almost all prey live in habitats with predators with different hunting modes; however, most studies on predation have investigated the effects of only one predator at a time. In this study, we aimed to investigate whether qingbo (Spinibarbus sinensis), a common cyprinid fish, responds differently to active hunting and ambush predators and how qingbo responds when both types of predators coexist. Juvenile qingbo were subjected to catfish (Clarias fuscus, active hunter) exposure, snakehead fish (Channa argus, ambush hunter) exposure, or mixed predator exposure (catfish and snakehead coexistence) for a duration of 60 days. Then, their growth, behaviors, swimming performance, and metabolism were measured. Qingbo subjected to active hunting predator exposure exhibited decreased activity and predator inspection and improved fast-start escape performance compared to those in the control group. However, none of the parameters of the fish subjected to ambush predator exposure changed significantly. Fish subjected to mixed predator exposure exhibited improved fast-start escape performance but increased maintenance energy expenditure, whereas no changes were observed in any of the behavioral variables. Qingbo showed a stronger anti-predator response to active hunting predators than to ambush predators, suggesting that the fish exhibit a stronger anti-predator response to a current direct threat than to a potential threat (a predator exists nearby but seldom presents in attack behavior). Additionally, the response of prey fish to multiple predators was quite complex, and the coexistence and interaction of multiple predator species with different hunting modes may lead to serious stress responses and confound the prey's behavioral responses to each predator.

Seasonal biotic and abiotic factors affecting hunting strategy in free-living Saharan sand vipers, Cerastes vipera.

Sit-and-wait ambushing and active hunting are two strategies used by predators to capture prey. In snakes, hunting strategy is conserved phylogenetically; most species employ only one strategy. Active hunters encounter and capture more prey but invest more energy in hunting and have higher risks of being predated. This trade-off is important to small predators. The small Cerastes vipera employs both modes of hunting, which is unlike most viperids which use only sit-and wait ambushing. This species hibernates in October and emerges in April. Energy intake should be high prior to hibernation to overcome the non-feeding hibernation period and for reproduction on their emergence. We predicted that more individuals would hunt actively towards hibernation and an abiotic factor would trigger this response. Furthermore, since more energy is required for active hunting, we predicted that snakes in good body condition would use active hunting to a greater extent than snakes in poor body condition. To test our predictions, we tracked free-living snakes year round and determined their hunting strategy, estimated their body condition index (BCI), and calculated circannual parameters of day length as environmental cues known to affect animal behaviour. Two novel findings emerged in this study, namely, hunting strategy was affected significantly by 1) the circannual change in day length and 2) by BCI. The proportion of active hunters increased from 5% in April to over 30% in October and BCI of active foragers was higher than that of sit-and-wait foragers and, therefore, our predictions were supported. The entrainment between the proportion of active hunting and the abiotic factor is indicative of an adaptive function for choosing a hunting strategy. A trend was evident among life stages. When all life stages were present (September-October), the proportion of active foragers increased with age: 0.0% among neonates, 18.2% among juveniles and 31.4% among adults. We concluded that vulnerable small neonates used sit-and-wait ambush not only as a hunting strategy but also as a hiding technique.