Towards a three-level neo-Tinbergenian approach to object play: Structure, causes and consequences of a behavioral puzzle.

My main goal in this paper is to propose a reformulation of foundational models in behavioral research, including Tinbergen's (1963) well-known four levels of analysis (namely, ontogenetic, mechanistic, functional, and evolutionary questions) and Mayr's (1961) dichotomy between proximate and ultimate causations. After critically evaluating these influential but problematic models, I present a three-level neo-Tinbergenian approach to behavior that considers the triadic integration of behavioral causes, structure, and consequences along a single temporal continuum. I then argue that object-directed play is a good candidate behavior to apply this new paradigm by presenting significant examples of the combined analysis of at least two of these three levels. Finally, I show how stone handling, a form of culturally-transmitted object play in macaques, is perfectly amenable to this unified three-level explanatory framework. My proposed approach fits recent theoretical and empirical advances in behavioral biology, has a heuristic value, and may provide numerous benefits to a range of behavioral scientists.

Discursive construction of corporate identity through websites: An intercultural perspective on the commercial banks of the United States and China.

With the assistance of the corpus analysis tool Wmatrix 4.0, this paper analyzes the semantic categories of the top 10 commercial banks of China and the United States to figure out their social-cultural behavior in the Internet business context. It is discovered that both common and distinctive identities were constructed: the common identities include the professional financial service provider, responsible corporation for employees, and relevant communities with environmental and social consciousness, while the distinctive identities are manifested in the communication strategy, style, and persuasion mode: (1) The Chinese Commercial Banks adopted the proactive strategy for corporate identity construction, are prone to take hierarchical and impersonal communication style, and more focused on the "credibility appeal" and "rational appeal" in persuasion mode; (2) the commercial banks of the United States are more reactive in the communication strategy, position themselves in short distance with the putative audience in communication style, and conform to the typical "affective appeal" regarding the persuasion mode. From the intercultural perspective, the distinctions are the representation of the peculiar high-context culture and low-context culture based on Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory. Chinese banks should try to shorten the cultural gap by adopting communication strategy in conformity with the local cultural when going global rather than sticking to the domestic communication strategy.

Middle Pleistocene fire use: The first signal of widespread cultural diffusion in human evolution.

Control of fire is one of the most important technological innovations within the evolution of humankind. The archaeological signal of fire use becomes very visible from around 400,000 y ago onward. Interestingly, this occurs at a geologically similar time over major parts of the Old World, in Africa, as well as in western Eurasia, and in different subpopulations of the wider hominin metapopulation. We interpret this spatiotemporal pattern as the result of cultural diffusion, and as representing the earliest clear-cut case of widespread cultural change resulting from diffusion in human evolution. This fire-use pattern is followed slightly later by a similar spatiotemporal distribution of Levallois technology, at the beginning of the African Middle Stone Age and the western Eurasian Middle Paleolithic. These archaeological data, as well as studies of ancient genomes, lead us to hypothesize that at the latest by 400,000 y ago, hominin subpopulations encountered one another often enough and were sufficiently tolerant toward one another to transmit ideas and techniques over large regions within relatively short time periods. Furthermore, it is likely that the large-scale social networks necessary to transmit complicated skills were also in place. Most importantly, this suggests a form of cultural behavior significantly more similar to that of extant Homo sapiens than to our great ape relatives.

Value-based eating habits; exploring religio-cultural nutritional behavior norms.

PURPOSE: Defining a standard norm is critical in nutritional cognitive-behavioral interventions. These norms can be derived from a statistical or value-based point of view. Religion and subsequent cultural values can have significant effects on social behaviors, especially on eating habits. In this study, the authors quantify the presence of religio-cultural nutritional behavior norms in Abrahamic scriptures. METHODS: Qualitative content analysis and descriptive analysis were applied to these texts to provide a better understanding of the subject. RESULTS: The extracted norms were categorized into nine main behavioral domains, and most of the observed value-based norms were in agreement with previous experimental researches. CONCLUSION: There is strong emphasis on nutritional habits in value-based religio-cultural sources. The use of these norms in later policies and practices is advised. This approach can lead to healthier nutritional choices and a decrease in non-communicable diseases.

Intentional cranial modification from the Houtaomuga Site in Jilin, China: Earliest evidence and longest in situ practice during the Neolithic Age.

OBJECTIVES: Intentional cranial modification (ICM) was a long-established tradition used to reshape the head. Unfortunately, motivation of the act is unclear. It has been found in recent and contemporary human populations throughout the Old and New Worlds, yet the drawback of the quest into the origin, diffusion, and meanings of ICM is the lack of early materials for scientific examination. This study reports the discovery of ICM from the Neolithic Houtaomuga Site in Northeast China and the importance in deepening our knowledge of this intriguing tradition. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-five skeletons unearthed from the Neolithic cultural Phases 1-4 in the Houtaomuga Site were visually screened for ICM features. Cranial measurements were conducted to quantify the degree of variation in the modified skulls and typical ones were computer tomography (CT) scanned to obtain a diploë structure and 3D model. RESULTS: Eleven skulls carrying signs of ICM from both sexes varying in age from juveniles to full adults were identified ranging from 12,000 BP to 5,000 BP. Three types of modification patterns were observed and most of them were of typical fronto-occipital modification pattern. In particular, there were remarkable variations in the curvature of the crania along the sagittal direction. DISCUSSION: Overall, the antiquity as well as the cultural and genetic continuity of the population in Houtaomuga Site demonstrated the earliest confirmed ICM cases from the easternmost Old World, and the longest in situ duration of ICM practice at one single Neolithic site. This circumstance largely contributes to our understanding of the origins and distribution of ICM in Eurasia and the American continent.

The Will to Fight: Aversion-Induced Aggression and the Role of Motivation in Intergroup Conflicts.

Aggressive behavior is a source of many significant human problems, most notably the catastrophic loss of life and resources that can result from violent conflicts between groups. Aggressive behavior is particularly likely to arise from aversive conditions that function as motivating operations (MOs) that establish the stimulation produced by aggressive acts as reinforcing. We describe the behavior that arises from these circumstances as aversion-induced aggression (AIA) and argue that the MOs associated with AIA are important factors in initiating and sustaining violent conflicts between groups. In support of this, we survey the basic nonhuman research that has demonstrated the aggression-motivating functions of aversive stimuli. We extend our analysis of AIA to humans and describe how the special properties of verbal stimuli serve as the basis for notable differences between AIA in humans and nonhumans. We describe how aversive conditions may be exploited by leaders to establish support for aggression against another group in the pursuit of their objectives. We suggest that conflicts between groups cannot be resolved in the long term unless the motivational conditions from which conflicts arise are alleviated. Aggression is rarely effective in this regard because it exacerbates these conditions. For this reason, we advocate against the use of aggression as a tool for resolving conflicts between groups and consider how behavior science may contribute to the development and evaluation of alternative nonviolent practices.

Intergroup variation in robbing and bartering by long-tailed macaques at Uluwatu Temple (Bali, Indonesia).

Robbing and bartering (RB) is a behavioral practice anecdotally reported in free-ranging commensal macaques. It usually occurs in two steps: after taking inedible objects (e.g., glasses) from humans, the macaques appear to use them as tokens, returning them to humans in exchange for food. While extensively studied in captivity, our research is the first to investigate the object/food exchange between humans and primates in a natural setting. During a 4-month study in 2010, we used both focal and event sampling to record 201 RB events in a population of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis), including four neighboring groups ranging freely around Uluwatu Temple, Bali (Indonesia). In each group, we documented the RB frequency, prevalence and outcome, and tested the underpinning anthropogenic and demographic determinants. In line with the environmental opportunity hypothesis, we found a positive qualitative relation at the group level between time spent in tourist zones and RB frequency or prevalence. For two of the four groups, RB events were significantly more frequent when humans were more present in the environment. We also found qualitative partial support for the male-biased sex ratio hypothesis [i.e., RB was more frequent and prevalent in groups with higher ratios of (sub)adult males], whereas the group density hypothesis was not supported. This preliminary study showed that RB is a spontaneous, customary (in some groups), and enduring population-specific practice characterized by intergroup variation in Balinese macaques. As such, RB is a candidate for a new behavioral tradition in this species.

Educação física escolar e sedentarismo infantil: uma análise comportamental / Childhood sedentary lifestyle and physical education at school: a behavioral analysis / Educación física y el sedentarismo en la niñez: un análisis conductual

Cada vez mais, pesquisadores vêm se dedicando à análise do comportamento com o propósito de propiciar soluções para problemas sociais complexos. Entre estes, encontra-se o sedentarismo infantil, cuja prática é considerada um problema de saúde pública. Com o objetivo de identificar, descrever e analisar contingências a partir de relatos verbais no contexto da educação física escolar, expõe-se, neste artigo, uma pesquisa desenvolvida com três professores de educação física e seus 62 alunos. O resultado obtido introduz sugere a adoção de ações efetivas que podem nortear políticas públicas voltadas para a redução de riscos à saúde

There have been many researchers dedicating themselves to analyze behavior to get solutions to social problems. The practice of childhood sedentary lifestyle is a complex problem that evokes a public health concern. This article exposes a work field in which researches identify, describe and analyze verbal reports about effective contingencies at school. It introduces the practices of three teachers of physical education and their 62 students. The results suggest that actions that can support public policies toward mitigating health risks

Los investigadores se dedican cada vez más al Análisis del Comportamiento a fin de indicar soluciones a problemas sociales complejos. Entre éstos, se encuentra el sedentarismo infantil, cuya práctica es considerada un problema de salud pública. Con el objetivo de identificar, describir y analizar contingencias desde relatos verbales en el contexto de la educación física escolar, se expone, en este artículo, una investigación hecha a tres maestros y sus 62 pupilos. El resultado obtenido sugiere la adopción de medidas eficaces que pueden orientar las políticas públicas compartidas para reducir los riesgos de salud

Educação física escolar e sedentarismo infantil: uma análise comportamental / Childhood sedentary lifestyle and physical education at school: a behavioral analysis / Educación física y el sedentarismo en la niñez: un análisis conductual

Cada vez mais, pesquisadores vêm se dedicando à análise do comportamento com o propósito de propiciar soluções para problemas sociais complexos. Entre estes, encontra-se o sedentarismo infantil, cuja prática é considerada um problema de saúde pública. Com o objetivo de identificar, descrever e analisar contingências a partir de relatos verbais no contexto da educação física escolar, expõe-se, neste artigo, uma pesquisa desenvolvida com três professores de educação física e seus 62 alunos. O resultado obtido introduz sugere a adoção de ações efetivas que podem nortear políticas públicas voltadas para a redução de riscos à saúde(AU)

There have been many researchers dedicating themselves to analyze behavior to get solutions to social problems. The practice of childhood sedentary lifestyle is a complex problem that evokes a public health concern. This article exposes a work field in which researches identify, describe and analyze verbal reports about effective contingencies at school. It introduces the practices of three teachers of physical education and their 62 students. The results suggest that actions that can support public policies toward mitigating health risks(AU)

Los investigadores se dedican cada vez más al Análisis del Comportamiento a fin de indicar soluciones a problemas sociales complejos. Entre éstos, se encuentra el sedentarismo infantil, cuya práctica es considerada un problema de salud pública. Con el objetivo de identificar, describir y analizar contingencias desde relatos verbales en el contexto de la educación física escolar, se expone, en este artículo, una investigación hecha a tres maestros y sus 62 pupilos. El resultado obtenido sugiere la adopción de medidas eficaces que pueden orientar las políticas públicas compartidas para reducir los riesgos de salud(AU)

Conceito Skinneriano de Comportamento Eficaz / Skinner's concept of Efficient Behavior

Este ensaio apresenta o resultado de um exame de textos skinnerianos, conduzido com o objetivo de explicitar critérios com os quais Skinner emprega o termo eficaz para qualificar comportamentos. Foram examinados alguns textos nos quais ele mais emprega esse termo: aqueles que tratam das contingências de reforço, do planejamento de contingências e da sobrevivência das culturas. Verificou-se que Skinner tende a usar a expressão "comportamento eficaz" em relação a dois temas: 1 - possibilidades ou chances de reforço e 2 - comportamento cultural e sobrevivência de culturas. No primeiro caso, ele usa o termo para qualificar: respostas operantes, classes de respostas operantes específicas e repertório comportamental especial, que demonstrem maior probabilidade de produzir consequências ambientais reforçadoras. No segundo caso, o autor denomina eficaz ao comportamento que produz, não apenas consequências reforçadoras, mas também consequências culturais relevantes. Verificou-se, ainda, que os critérios aqui explicitados constituem parte dos argumentos com os quais Skinner defende o planejamento de contingências como uma forma de garantir o aprendizado de comportamento humano eficaz.

This essay presents the results of an analysis of Skinnerian texts, developed with the aim of making explicit the criteria with which Skinner uses the term efficient to qualify behaviors. Some texts in which he uses this term were examined: those that deal with reinforcement contingencies, contingency planning and cultures’ survival. It was verified that Skinner tended to use the expression “efficientbehavior” in reference to two themes: 1 – possibilities or chances of reinforcement and 2 – cultural behavior and cultural survival. In the first case, he uses the term to qualify: operant responses, specific operant response classes and special behavior repertoire that present more probability of producing environmental reinforcing consequences. In the second case, efficient behavior not only producesreinforcing consequences, but also socially relevant cultural consequences. It was observed that the criteria made explicit here constitute part of the arguments with which Skinner defends contingency planning as the one way of assuring the learning of efficient human behavior.