The value of error-correcting responses for cognitive assessment in games.

Traditional conflict-based cognitive assessment tools are highly behaviorally restrictive, which prevents them from capturing the dynamic nature of human cognition, such as the tendency to make error-correcting responses. The cognitive game Tunnel Runner measures interference control, response inhibition, and response-rule switching in a less restrictive manner than traditional cognitive assessment tools by giving players movement control after an initial response and encouraging error-correcting responses. Nevertheless, error-correcting responses remain unused due to a limited understanding of what they measure and how to use them. To facilitate the use of error-correcting responses to measure and understand human cognition, we developed theoretically-grounded measures of error-correcting responses in Tunnel Runner and assessed whether they reflected the same cognitive functions measured via initial responses. Furthermore, we evaluated the measurement potential of error-correcting responses. We found that initial and error-correcting responses similarly reflected players' response inhibition and interference control, but not their response-rule switching. Furthermore, combining the two response types increased the reliability of interference control and response inhibition measurements. Lastly, error-correcting responses showed the potential to measure response inhibition on their own. Our results pave the way toward understanding and using post-decision change of mind data for cognitive measurement and other research and application contexts.

Temporal Course of Interference Control from Early to Late Young Adulthood: An ERP Study.

In the present study, we aimed to investigate the neural dynamics of interference control using event-related potentials (ERPs) to reveal time course of interference control from the beginning to the end of young adulthood. Three groups of participants aged 19-21, 23-27 and 28-44 performed a Stroop task. The results revealed age differences in both accuracy and ERP amplitudes during all aspects of interreference control processing that reflect selective attention (P2), conflict monitoring (N2), conflict evaluation (P3) and interference control (N450). Both younger groups made more errors on incongruent trials compared to participants in their early 30s. The presence of higher P2 and N2 amplitudes, diminished P3 and again higher N450 amplitudes in participants in their early 20s points to a shortage of available resources for top-down control at this age. These results are in accordance with structural and functional studies that show that development of the frontoparietal network, which underlies interference control, continues after adolescence. While brain mechanisms are still developing, the use of accompanying cognitive abilities is still not optimal. The findings that change in neural dynamics and related performance continues into early adulthood challenge current models of cognitive development and call for new directions in developmental theorizing.

A mismatch between early and recent life stress predicts better response inhibition, but not cognitive inhibition.

A growing body of work has found that a mismatch between early and recent life stress, more than a cumulative influence of stress, contributes to detrimental stress-related health outcomes. To date, however, no work has examined how such a mismatch might relate to stress-related cognitive outcomes. We addressed this gap in the current study by assessing participants' (N = 154, Mage = 18.7, 104 female) early and recent life stress using the same inventory, and subsequently assessing their inhibitory control in a hybrid stop-signal/flanker task. Surprisingly, we found that a greater degree of stressor mismatch was associated with better response inhibition (i.e. smaller stop-signal reaction time) across a number of analytic approaches. Cognitive inhibition (i.e. the flanker interference effect) was not associated with stressor mismatch. These results thus show that a greater degree of mismatch between early and recent life stress is related to response inhibition in the same way as acute stress affects response inhibition, suggesting that response inhibition may be an important cognitive process for navigating both acute stress and general environmental conditions that do not match the conditions in which expected stress occurrence was established.

Dissociation of prepotent response inhibition and interference control in problematic internet use: evidence from the Go/No-Go and Flanker tasks.

BACKGROUND: Problematic Internet Use (PIU), characterized by failures to control the overuse of internet, is associated with a range of functional impairments. However, there is limited research on the specific impact of PIU on inhibitory control functions, particularly in terms of differentiating between prepotent response inhibition and interference control. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to investigate these two components of inhibitory control in individuals with PIU. METHODS: Thirty participants who met the PIU criteria and 30 control participants were included in the present study. All participants completed the Go/No-Go and Flanker tasks, in which internet-related images and words were used as task stimuli. RESULTS: In the Go/No-Go task, all participants exhibited poorer performance in inhibiting internet-related stimuli compared to internet-unrelated stimuli, during the No-Go trials. In the Flanker task, results revealed a three-way interaction of Group, Stimulus type and Congruency. Specifically, in the incongruent condition, participants with PIU exhibited slower responses for internet-unrelated targets compared to internet-related targets, whereas no similar effect was observed among individuals with low internet use. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that difficulties in controlling the interference effect of internet-related information represent a key dysfunction in inhibitory control of PIU.

The Impact of Sex on Cognitive Control in ADHD: Girls Slow to Inhibit, Boys Inhibit Less, and Both Show Higher Response Variability.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether girls and boys with ADHD show distinct impairments in components of cognitive control across multiple tasks (go/no-go, stop signal, and flanker) and performance metrics (response speed, variability, and errors). METHOD: A total of 300 children, ages 8 to 12 years with ADHD (n = 210, 58 girls) or typically developing (TD; n = 99, 37 girls), completed all tasks. Traditional response measures (e.g., mean and standard deviation of reaction time, inhibition errors, and stop signal reaction time) and ex-Gaussian modeling of reaction times (mu, sigma, and tau) were analyzed. RESULTS: Girls showed intact response inhibition in the context of slower response speed, while boys made more inhibition errors and did not slow their response speed. Both girls and boys with ADHD showed higher response variability and poorer interference control than TD children. CONCLUSION: Girls and boys with ADHD show distinct impairments in cognitive control that may be important for understanding the pathophysiology of ADHD.

Subsyndromal depression leads to early under-activation and late over-activation during inhibitory control: an ERP study.

Individuals with depressive disorders have deficits in inhibitory control and exhibit symptoms of impaired cognitive and emotional functioning. Individuals with subsyndromal depression are intermediate between the healthy group and clinically diagnosed patients with depressive disorders, and studying the characteristics of their inhibitory control functioning can help to investigate the mechanisms underlying the development of depressive disorders. Using two classical paradigms of inhibitory control, Flanker and Go/NoGo, the present study explored the differences in inhibitory control between individuals with subsyndromal depression and healthy individuals from the perspectives of both response inhibition and interference control. Behavioral results showed that both groups did not differ in response time and accuracy; in terms of event-related potentials, individuals with subsyndromal depression presented smaller N2 amplitudes as well as larger P3 amplitudes in the NoGo condition of the Go/NoGo paradigm; and smaller N2 amplitudes in the incongruent condition of the Flanker paradigm. Moreover, the depression-prone group showed lower theta power compared to the healthy group in the NoGo condition of the NoGo paradigm and the incongruent condition of the Flanker paradigm. The present study reveals that the depression-prone group may have a compensatory mechanism in the response inhibition, which is mainly manifested as early under-activation as well as late over-activation.

Inhibitory control in children with agenesis of the corpus callosum compared with typically developing children.

OBJECTIVES: The developmental absence (agenesis) of the corpus callosum (AgCC) is a congenital brain malformation associated with risk for a range of neuropsychological difficulties. Inhibitory control outcomes, including interference control and response inhibition, in children with AgCC are unclear. This study examined interference control and response inhibition: 1) in children with AgCC compared with typically developing (TD) children, 2) in children with different anatomical features of AgCC (complete vs. partial, isolated vs. complex), and 3) associations with white matter volume and microstructure of the anterior (AC) and posterior commissures (PC) and any remnant corpus callosum (CC). METHODS: Participants were 27 children with AgCC and 32 TD children 8-16 years who completed inhibitory control assessments and brain MRI to define AgCC anatomical features and measure white matter volume and microstructure. RESULTS: The AgCC cohort had poorer performance and higher rates of below average performance on inhibitory control measures than TD children. Children with complex AgCC had poorer response inhibition performance than children with isolated AgCC. While not statistically significant, there were select medium to large effect sizes for better inhibitory control associated with greater volume and microstructure of the AC and PC, and with reduced volume and microstructure of the remnant CC in partial AgCC. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence of inhibitory control difficulties in children with AgCC. While the sample was small, the study found preliminary evidence that the AC (f2=.18) and PC (f2=.30) may play a compensatory role for inhibitory control outcomes in the absence of the CC.

Impulsivity and attention deficit-hyperactivity symptoms among patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Multiple sclerosis(MS) is a progressive, autoimmune, neurodegenerative disease.Studies have suggested that autoimmune diseases play a role in the pathogenesis of Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder(ADHD).We aim to evaluate ADHD symptoms among patients with RRMS(pwRRMS). METHODS: The study included 48 RRMS patients and 54 healthy controls. ADHD symptoms were assessed by self-report questionnaires and performance tests.Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Turgay's Turkish version of Adult-ADD/ADHD (A-ADHD), Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS-11), and World Health Organization Quality of Life-Short Form (WHOQoL-Bref) were completed by the participants.Stroop Colour and Word Interference Test - TBAG Form (SCWT); was used for assessing cognitive function by a trained psychiatrist. Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS) and Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) were used to evaluate by pwRRMS. RESULTS: PwRRMS had significantly higher attention-deficit scores and poor performance in all SCWT subtests.All SCWT scores were positively correlated with MS duration.A-ADHD-Total scores were negatively correlated with the age of MS diagnosis.A moderate positive correlation was found between falls and A-ADHD-total scores, and psychomotor speed.A moderate negative correlation was found between WHOQoL-Bref scores and BID, FSS, ADHD-Attention Deficit, SCWT-3, SCWT-5, and SCWT-interference.In multivariate linear regression analyzes, attention-deficit predicted EDSS positively, while depressive symptoms, attention-deficit, and psychomotor speed time were negative predictors of physical health quality. CONCLUSIONS: In pwRRMS, cognitive dysfunctions such as response inhibition and intervention control, which are symptoms of attention deficit and impulsivity, have been shown to reduce the overall QoL. Among the strategies to reduce the impact of RRMS disease on patients' lives, it is essential to implement programs to prevent depression and increase cognitive reserve.

The role of impulse and interference control in aversive personality: A comprehensive assessment.

Ethically and socially aversive behaviors have been attributed to several personality traits, including characteristics collectively referred to under the umbrella term of impulsivity. It is an open question, however, whether such characteristics are an integral part of ethically and socially aversive personality. Relying on three large samples (total N = 9854) and implementing longitudinal assessments, the present study provides a comprehensive investigation of the role of impulse and interference control in aversive personality. Based on contemporary conceptualizations of the impulsivity domain, a total of 17 dimensions spanning both self-reports and behavioral tasks are assessed. To represent aversive personality, we consider the D Factor of Personality (D), i.e., the basic disposition shared by all aversive traits. Results indicate that D co-occurs with a deficit in inhibiting the incorrect action when multiple actions are available, a preference for immediate rewards while failing to consider the consequences of one's actions, and maladaptive behavior directed towards regulating strong affect. However, most associations between D and dimensions of impulsivity were small or non-significant, thereby disconfirming the notion that characteristics related to a lack of impulse control are an integral feature of aversive personality in general.

Differences in auditory verbal working memory between adults who do and do not stutter on an N-back task.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate auditory verbal working memory in adults who do (AWS) and do not (AWNS) stutter using a highly demanding linguistic N-back task. METHODS: Fifteen AWS and 15 AWNS matched in age, gender and educational level were asked to hear series of words and respond by pressing a "yes" button if the word they just heard was the same as the word one, two, or three trials back. Words were either phonologically similar (i.e., Phonological Linguistic Condition) or phonologically dissimilar (i.e., Neutral Linguistic Condition). Accuracy and false alarms rates as well as reaction time on correct target trials, missed target trials and false alarms were collected and analyzed. RESULTS: Differences were not found between AWS and AWNS in accuracy. Both groups were more accurate and significantly faster in 1- followed by 2- followed by 3-back trials. However, AWS were significantly slower than AWNS in the 2-back level, regardless of linguistic condition. Furthermore, AWS demonstrated more false alarms compared to AWNS. CONCLUSION: Results revealed differences in auditory verbal working memory and interference control between AWS and AWNS when processing highly linguistically demanding stimuli.

Age-related differences in interference control in the context of a finger-lifting task: an fMRI study.

Humans tend to automatically imitate others and their actions while also being able to control such imitative tendencies. Interference control, necessary to suppress own imitative tendencies, develops rapidly in childhood and adolescence, plateaus in adulthood and slowly declines with advancing age. It remains to be shown though which neural processes underpin these differences across the lifespan. In a cross-sectional functional magnetic resonance imaging study with three age groups (adolescents (ADs) 14-17 years, young adults (YAs) 21-31, older adults (OAs) 56-76, N = 91 healthy female participants), we investigated the behavioral and neural correlates of interference control in the context of automatic imitation using the finger-lifting task. ADs showed the most efficient interference control, while no significant differences emerged between YAs and OAs, despite OAs showing longer reaction times. On the neural level, all age groups showed engagement of the right temporoparietal junction, right supramarginal gyrus and bilateral insula, aligning well with studies previously using this task. However, our analyses did not reveal any age-related differences in brain activation, neither in these nor in other areas. This suggests that ADs might have a more efficient use of the engaged brain networks and, on the other hand, OAs' capacity for interference control and the associated brain functions might be largely preserved.

Sex differences in medication-naïve adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A counting Stroop functional MRI study.

Emerging evidence supports deficits in executive functions in the fronto-striato-parietal network in individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, most functional studies recruited men with ADHD only, leaving it unclear whether executive deficits are also demonstrated in women with ADHD. Thus, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the sex differences in a counting Stroop task that explored interference control. The sample consisted of 55 medication-naïve adults with ADHD (28 men, 27 women) and 52 healthy controls (HC, 26 men, 26 women). The Conners' Continuous Performance Test further evaluated the performance of focused attention (standard deviation of the reaction time, RTSD) and vigilance (the reaction time change across different inter-stimulus intervals, RTISI). First, for the main effect of diagnosis, compared to the HC group, the ADHD group showed less activation in the caudate nucleus and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). Second, for the main effect of sex, no significant effects were found. Third, a diagnosis-by-sex interaction indicated that the magnitude of ADHD-HC difference was greater for women than men in the right IFG and precuneus, reflecting greater difficulties for ADHD women to resolve interference. Conversely, no significant brain activation showed greater ADHD-HC difference in men than women. Also, reduced right IFG and precuneus activation was negatively associated with the scores assessing focused attention and vigilance in ADHD women, indicating that the attentional abilities are disrupted in ADHD women. Abnormalities in the frontoparietal areas may represent the main difference between ADHD women and ADHD men.

Response modularity moderates how executive control aids fluent semantic memory retrieval.

ABSTRACTEmerging work in semantic cognition has begun to elucidate the interaction between the structure of semantic memory and processes mediating goal-directed memory retrieval. Despite having essential implications for basic and applied research, these objectives remain neglected in both the assessment and interpretation of semantic verbal fluency (SVF) tasks. To test the association between semantic structure and the controlled processes underlying verbal fluency, we assessed how the degree of partitioning (modularity) of SVF responses into semantic clusters moderates the relationship of retrieval fluency with working memory and interference control capacities. We found that working memory capacity predicted retrieval fluency in individuals whose SVF responses were arranged in fine-grained semantic clusters (high modularity), whereas interference control was more predictive of retrieval fluency for individuals who delivered responses of low modularity. Our data support the presumed role of working memory and interference control in SVF and provide novel evidence that relative demands on these capacities are predicted by the organisation of semantic knowledge.

Relationship Between Inhibitory Control and Arithmetic in Elementary School Children With ADHD: The Mediating Role of Working Memory.

OBJECTIVES: To test if inhibitory control was a significant predictor for arithmetic in children with ADHD and if the relationship between inhibitory control and arithmetic was mediated by working memory. METHODS: Eighty-four children (ADHD, n = 54; Non-ADHD, n = 30) were tested on their interference control, behavioral inhibition, working memory, and arithmetic. Regression analysis was used to test the predictive role of inhibitory control in arithmetic. Moreover, mediation analysis was done to test whether working memory mediated the relationship between inhibitory control and arithmetic memory. RESULTS: Interference control but not behavioral inhibition was a significant predictor for arithmetic. In addition, interference control had direct and indirect effects via working memory on arithmetic. CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrated that inhibitory control contributed to arithmetic in children with ADHD. Furthermore, interference control had direct and indirect effects via working memory on arithmetic, suggesting interventions for arithmetic difficulties should involve training on both inhibition and working memory.

Response Inhibition and Interference Control in Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Introduction: Among the executive functions affected in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), inhibitory control is one of the primary areas of impairment, characterized by components that include response inhibition and interference control. Determining the impaired inhibitory control components will be useful in the differential diagnosis and treatment of ADHD. The present study aimed to investigate response inhibition and interference control abilities of adults with ADHD. Methods: The study included 42 adults diagnosed with ADHD and 43 healthy controls. The stop-signal task (SST) and Stroop test were used for assessing the response inhibition and interference control, respectively. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used for comparing the ADHD and healthy control groups in terms of their SST and Stroop test scores, wherein the age and education level of the participants were taken as covariables. The relationship between SST and Stroop Test and Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11) was tested by Pearson correlation analysis. Mann-Whitney U test was used for comparing the test scores between those who were administered with psychostimulants among the adults with ADHD and those who were not. Results: Response inhibition was observed to be impaired in adults with ADHD compared with the healthy controls, whereas no difference regarding interference control was observed. As per the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11), a weak and moderately negative relationship was found between the stop signal delay and the attentional, motor, non-planning scores, and total scores and a weak positive relationship was found between the stop-signal reaction time and the attentional, motor, non-planning scores, and total scores. A significant improvement was observed in the response inhibition skills of the adults with ADHD who had received methylphenidate treatment compared to those who had not, and the former also showed lower impulsivity levels as measured by the BIS-11. Conclusions: It should be noted that response inhibition and interference control, which are considered under the umbrella of inhibitory control, may exhibit different characteristics in adult individuals diagnosed with ADHD and this is important for differential diagnosis. An improvement was observed in the response inhibition of adults with ADHD caused by psychostimulant treatment, which was associated with positive outcomes that were also noticeable by the patients. Understanding the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms of the condition would further facilitate the development of appropriate treatments.

Telerehabilitation Pathways in Specific Learning Disorders: Improving Reading and Writing.

Telerehabilitation has proved to be a useful tool for neurodevelopmental disorders in allowing timely and intensive intervention and preventing relapses; it is also widely used for specific learning disabilities (SLD), showing significant effects on reading abilities, but variables linked to its effectiveness have not been studied yet. The present study was aimed at testing the effectiveness of telerehabilitation on reading and writing in SLD children, comparing different treatment pathways, and considering the impact of training intensity and executive functions. Seventy-three children were enrolled (telerehabilitation group: 48 children, waiting list group: 25 children). The results showed significant improvements in reading fluency, text dictation, and executive functions in the training group. Children attending a combined training including reading tasks and rapid automatized naming processes improved in word reading fluency and text dictation. The number of training sessions and the change in executive functions significantly correlated with changes in reading accuracy. Here we show a new contribution to telerehabilitation research in SLD: telerehabilitation significantly enhanced learning abilities and executive functions. Training based on the learning task and the underlying processes significantly increased not only reading speed, according to previous studies, but also writing accuracy. The findings' implications in clinical research and practice are discussed.

Susceptibility to interference between Pavlovian and instrumental control predisposes risky alcohol use developmental trajectory from ages 18 to 24.

Pavlovian cues can influence ongoing instrumental behaviour via Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) processes. While appetitive Pavlovian cues tend to promote instrumental approach, they are detrimental when avoidance behaviour is required, and vice versa for aversive cues. We recently reported that susceptibility to interference between Pavlovian and instrumental control assessed via a PIT task was associated with risky alcohol use at age 18. We now investigated whether such susceptibility also predicts drinking trajectories until age 24, based on AUDIT (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test) consumption and binge drinking (gramme alcohol/drinking occasion) scores. The interference PIT effect, assessed at ages 18 and 21 during fMRI, was characterized by increased error rates (ER) and enhanced neural responses in the ventral striatum (VS), the lateral and dorsomedial prefrontal cortices (dmPFC) during conflict, that is, when an instrumental approach was required in the presence of an aversive Pavlovian cue or vice versa. We found that a stronger VS response during conflict at age 18 was associated with a higher starting point of both drinking trajectories but predicted a decrease in binge drinking. At age 21, high ER and enhanced neural responses in the dmPFC were associated with increasing AUDIT-C scores over the next 3 years until age 24. Overall, susceptibility to interference between Pavlovian and instrumental control might be viewed as a predisposing mechanism towards hazardous alcohol use during young adulthood, and the identified high-risk group may profit from targeted interventions.

Does chronic use of amphetamine-type stimulants impair interference control? - A meta-analysis.

In substance use and addiction, inhibitory control is key to ignoring triggers, withstanding craving and maintaining abstinence. In amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) users, most research focused on behavioral inhibition, but largely neglected the equally important subdomain of cognitive interference control. Given its crucial role in managing consumption, we investigated the relationship between interference control and chronic ATS use in adults. A database search (Pubmed & Web of Science) and relevant reviews were used to identify eligible studies. Effect sizes were estimated with random effects models. Subgroup, meta-regression, and sensitivity analyses explored heterogeneity in effect sizes. We identified 61 studies (53 datasets) assessing interference control in 1873 ATS users and 1905 controls. Findings revealed robust small effect sizes for ATS-related deficits in interference control, which were mainly seen in methamphetamine, as compared to MDMA users. The differential effects are likely due to tolerance-induced dopaminergic deficiencies (presumably most pronounced in methamphetamine users). Similarities between different ATS could be due to noradrenergic deficiencies; but elucidating their functional role in ATS users requires further/more research.

The effect of reducing attentional resources on selective suppression in the Simon task.

Studies using reaction times (RTs) distribution methods find that the Simon effect is greater for fast RTs and becomes smaller or reversed for slow RTs. However, the exact mechanisms responsible for this reduction are under debate. This study addressed the issue of whether attentional resources play a role in reduction of the Simon effect over time by investigating whether it is influenced by attentional constraints in a dual-task paradigm. Participants were instructed to perform a Simon task concurrently with a secondary task. Secondary task characteristics were manipulated by varying the overlap between the secondary task and the Simon task. Specifically, secondary tasks varied in their stimulus modality (auditory or visual) and/or response type (verbal or manual and lateralised or not). Distribution analyses of RTs, in the form of delta-plot functions, were performed for both the single- and dual-task conditions. Results showed that the more attention the secondary task demanded, the less the Simon effect was reduced, even for slower RTs. This suggests that the mechanisms responsible for the reduction of Simon effect over time are under top-down control.

The who and how of attentional bias in cannabis users: associations with use severity, craving and interference control.

AIMS: Cognitive and motivational processes are thought to underlie cannabis use disorder (CUD), but research assessing how cognitive processes [e.g. interference control (IC)] interact with implicit [e.g. attentional bias (AB)] and explicit motivation (i.e. craving) is lacking. We assessed the presence of AB in cannabis users with varying use severity and tested models of moderation, mediation and moderated mediation to assess how AB, craving and IC interact in their association with measures of cannabis use. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study design was used. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Eight studies performed by our laboratory in the Netherlands including never-sporadic, occasional (≤ 1/month) and regular cannabis users (≥ 2/week), and individuals in treatment for CUD were combined (n = 560; 71% male). MEASUREMENTS: Studies included a classic Stroop task (IC), a cannabis Stroop task (AB) and measures of session-induced and average session craving. Both heaviness of cannabis use (grams/week) and severity of use related problems were included. FINDINGS: Only those in treatment for CUD showed an AB to cannabis (P = 0.019) and group differences were only observed when comparing CUD with never-sporadic users (P = 0.007). In occasional and regular users, IC was negatively associated with heaviness (ß = 0.015, P < 0.001), but not severity of use. Average session craving (exploratory), but not session-induced craving (confirmatory), mediated this association between AB and heaviness (ß = 0.050, P = 0.011) as well as severity of use (ß = 0.083, P = 0.009); higher AB was associated with heavier use and more severe problems through increased craving. CONCLUSIONS: Attentional bias only appears to be present in cannabis users with the most severe problems and craving appears to mediate the association between attentional bias and both heaviness and severity of use in occasional and regular users. The association of interference control with heaviness but not severity of use may point to subacute intoxication effects of cannabis use on interference control.