Application and antagonistic mechanisms of atoxigenic Aspergillus strains for the management of fungal plant diseases.

This review covers, for the first time, all methods based on the use of Aspergillus strains as biocontrol agents for the management of plant diseases caused by fungi and oomycetes. Atoxigenic Aspergillus strains have been screened in a variety of hosts, such as peanuts, maize kernels, and legumes, during the preharvest and postharvest stages. These strains have been screened against a wide range of pathogens, such as Fusarium, Phytophthora, and Pythium species, suggesting a broad applicability spectrum. The highest efficacies were generally observed when using non-toxigenic Aspergillus strains for the management of mycotoxin-producing Aspergillus strains. The modes of action included the synthesis of antifungal metabolites, such as kojic acid and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), secretion of hydrolytic enzymes, competition for space and nutrients, and induction of disease resistance. Aspergillus strains degraded Sclerotinia sclerotiorum sclerotia, showing high control efficacy against this pathogen. Collectively, although two Aspergillus strains have been commercialized for aflatoxin degradation, a new application of Aspergillus strains is emerging and needs to be optimized.

First evidence on the occurrence of multi-mycotoxins and dietary risk exposure to AFB1 along the cassava value chain in Uganda.

This study investigated the occurrence and distribution of multiple mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, fumonisins B1, B2, ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), and citrinin (CIT)) in cassava products and as assessed the potential risk of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) exposure among cassava consumers. A total of 192 samples of cassava products (96 flour and 96 chips, each with 48 samples from farmer and 48 from wholesaler) were analysed using LC/MS-MS. All positive samples irrespective of their origin (flour or chips) exhibited AFB1 levels exceeding the EU regulatory threshold of 5 µg/kg. The sum of fumonisins (FB1 + FB2), ZEN, and DON were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in cassava flour (14.3 µg/kg; 3.71 µg/kg; 25.1 µg/kg) compared to chips (6.54 µg/kg; 1.25 µg/kg; 0.25 µg/kg), respectively. Aflatoxins G2 was not detected in any of 192 samples. Cassava flour samples from farmers exhibited significantly (P < 0.05) higher mean concentrations of AFB1 (27.1 µg/kg), total aflatoxins (78.2 µg/kg), and ochratoxin A (79.6 µg/kg) in contrast to wholesalers, whose mean levels were notably lower at 8.91, 5.79 µg/kg, and 2.44 µg/kg, respectively, pointing the likely critical source of mycotoxin contamination. Cassava consumers in Northern Uganda are at a higher risk, with an estimated 2.06 cancer cases per 100,000 individuals per year compared to those in Eastern Uganda at 0.25. This study underscores the urgent need for interventions to manage aflatoxins in cassava flour, particularly at farm level in Northern Uganda. It accentuates a shift market to household-level sampling and the need for analytical methods targeting multiple mycotoxins.

Inhibitory Effect of Sorbus aucuparia Extracts on the Fusarium proliferatum and F. culmorum Growth and Mycotoxin Biosynthesis.

Fungal infections are among the most common diseases of crop plants. Various species of the Fusarium spp. are naturally prevalent and globally cause the qualitative and quantitative losses of farming commodities, mainly cereals, fruits, and vegetables. In addition, Fusarium spp. can synthesize toxic secondary metabolites-mycotoxins under high temperature and humidity conditions. Among the strategies against Fusarium spp. incidence and mycotoxins biosynthesis, the application of biological control, specifically natural plant extracts, has proved to be one of the solutions as an alternative to chemical treatments. Notably, rowanberries taken from Sorbus aucuparia are a rich source of phytochemicals, such as vitamins, carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, as well as minerals, including iron, potassium, and magnesium, making them promising candidates for biological control strategies. The study aimed to investigate the effect of rowanberry extracts obtained by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) under different conditions on the growth of Fusarium (F. culmorum and F. proliferatum) and mycotoxin biosynthesis. The results showed that various extracts had different effects on Fusarium growth as well as ergosterol content and mycotoxin biosynthesis. These findings suggest that rowanberry extracts obtained by the SFE method could be a natural alternative to synthetic fungicides for eradicating Fusarium pathogens in crops, particularly cereal grains. However, more research is necessary to evaluate their efficacy against other Fusarium species and in vivo applications.

The Ecological Strategy Determines the Response of Fungi to Stress: A Study of the 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol Activity Against Aspergillus and Fusarium Species.

Aspergillus and Fusarium are two economically important genera of fungi. They cause significant yield losses and contamination of crops with mycotoxins. In this study we aimed to evaluate the impact of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (2,4-DAPG) on Aspergillus and Fusarium fungi. It is hypothesized that two fungal genera, which have different ecological strategies, react differently to stress caused by a secondary metabolite produced by rhizosphere Pseudomonas species. We found that 2,4-DAPG was able to reduce biofilm formation of Aspergillus and Fusarium, as reflected in biomass and its chemical composition. Furthermore, subinhibitory concentrations of 2,4-DAPG increased the levels of ergosterol and polysaccharides (α- and ß-glucans, chitin) in the cell membrane and cell wall of Aspergillus, while decreasing them in Fusarium. 2,4-DAPG altered the production of secondary metabolites, especially mycotoxins and extracellular proteases. The production of ochratoxin A was decreased in A. ochraceus, and T-2 toxin and zearalenone, on the contrary, were increased in F. culmorum and F. sporotrichioides, respectively. Thus, using 2,4-DAPG we demonstrated that the ecological role of fungi determines their reaction to antibiotic substances produced by the plant microbiome. Our data contributes to understanding the molecular mechanisms behind symbiotic relationships in natural communities, which are mediated by the biosynthesis of antibiotics.

Effect of aflatoxin B1 and sterigmatocystin on DNA repair genes in common carp.

The present study aimed to investigate the short-time (24 h) effect of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and sterigmatocystin (STC) on the expression of hsp70, p53, gadd45, and ogg1 genes in common carp hepatopancreas. Our results showed that aflatoxin B1 and sterigmatocystin can stimulate the expression of DNA repair genes, mainly by hour 24. This significant finding contributes to our understanding of the short-term effects of these mycotoxins on ogg1 genes in common carp hepatopancreas. One-year-old common carp juveniles were randomly distributed into five groups (Control, AFB1 0.4 mg kg-1 feed, STC1 1 mg kg-1 feed, STC2 2 mg kg-1 feed, and STC3 3 mg kg-1 feed). Hepatopancreas samples were collected three times (8, 16, and 24 h) in each group. No significant ogg1 and p53 expression changes were observed at 8 and 16 h after exposure. All measured genes were upregulated by the 24th hour in aflatoxin and STC3 groups. An increase in hsp70 gene expression was detected in all groups and all sampling. A significant decrease in gadd45aa gene expression was observed in the aflatoxin B1 group at hour 8. At hour 16, there was no significant change, while at hour 24, all treated groups were significantly different from the control. In summary, our results suggest that aflatoxin B1 and sterigmatocystin can stimulate the expression of DNA repair genes, mainly by hour 24. Further investigations are needed to get information about DNA damage parallel to the DNA repair mechanisms.

Preventing Fungal Spoilage from Raw Materials to Final Product: Innovative Preservation Techniques for Fruit Fillings.

Spoilage fungi are a significant cause of financial loss in the food and beverage industry each year. These fungi thrive in challenging environments characterized by low acidity, low water activity and high sugar content, all of which are common in fruit fillings used in pastry products. Fruit fillings are therefore highly susceptible to fungal spoilage. Fungal growth can cause sensory defects in foods, such as changes in appearance, odor, flavor or texture, and can pose health risks due to the production of mycotoxins by certain mold species. To reduce food loss and waste and extend product shelf-life, it is critical that we prevent fungal spoilage. Synthetic chemicals such as sorbic acid and potassium sorbate are commonly used as preservatives to prevent fungal spoilage. However, with consumer demand for 'natural' and 'chemical-free' foods, research into clean-label preservative alternatives to replace chemical preservatives has increased. The objectives of this review are (i) to provide an overview of the sources of fungal contamination in fruit filling production systems, from pre-harvest of raw materials to storage of the final product, and to identify key control factors; and (ii) to discuss preservation techniques (both conventional and novel) that can prevent fungal growth and extend the shelf-life of fruit fillings.

Food safety issues associated with sesame seed value chains: Current status and future perspectives.

Sesame (Sesamum indicum) is an oilseed crop which is increasingly recognised as a functional food by consumers due to its nutritional and nutraceutical components. Consequently, global demand for sesame has increased significantly over the last three decades. Sesame is an important export crop in producing countries, contributing to their socio-economic development. However, in recent years, major foodborne incidents have been associated with imported sesame seeds and products made with these seeds. Foodborne hazards are a potential risk to consumer health and hinder international trade due to border rejections and increased import controls. An insight into the routes of contamination of these hazards across the value chain and factors affecting persistence may lead to more focused intervention and prevention strategies. It was observed that Salmonella is a significant microbial hazard in imported sesame seeds and has been associated with several global outbreaks. Sesame is mainly cultivated in the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa and Asia by smallholder farmers. Agricultural and manufacturing practices during harvesting, storage, and processing before export may allow for the contamination of sesame seeds with Salmonella. However, only a few studies collect data on the microbiological quality of sesame across the value chain in producing countries. In addition, the presence of mycotoxins and pesticides above regulatory limits in sesame seeds is a growing concern. Eliminating foodborne hazards in the sesame value chain requires urgent attention from researchers, producers, processors, and regulators and suggestions for improving the safety of these foods are discussed.

A worldwide systematic review of ochratoxin A in various coffee products - human exposure and health risk assessment.

Coffee is one of the most commonly consumed beverages worldwide, so assessing its quality for potential health risks is essential. Therefore, this review aimed to determine the levels of ochratoxin A (OTA) in coffee worldwide and then estimate its human intake and health risks. The systematic search took place from June 1997 to April 2024 and 40 of 254 articles were selected based on the selection criteria. The results showed significant differences in average levels of OTA between countries, continents and coffee types (p < 0.001). Of 3256 samples, OTA was detected in 1778, accounting for 54.6% of the total, with the percentage of positive results varying between 7.5% and 100%. Only two studies reported OTA average levels in roasted coffee exceeding the maximum limit (ML) set by the European Commission (ML-EC = 5 µg/kg). The average OTA in soluble coffee was lower than ML-EC (10 µg/kg) in all studies, and in instant coffee, the level of OTA was higher than ML-EC (10 µg/kg) only in one study. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of OTA in all coffee types was lower than the provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) values set by joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) (14 ng/kg bw/day) and proposed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (17 ng/kg bw/day). Non-carcinogenic risk assessment through coffee consumption indicated that the hazard quotient (HQ) was below the acceptable level, HQ = 1. The Margin of Exposure (MoE) for neoplastic effects was acceptable and unacceptable for non-neoplastic effects (NNE) in 4.5% (one of 22 cases) of the roasted and soluble coffees, but acceptable for all instant coffees. In conclusion, the study shows that the OTA content of coffee is not toxic to consumers worldwide. However, preventative measures should be taken, including inhibiting fungal growth and reducing OTA-producing fungal growth.

The fate of Alternaria toxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) during the processing chain of wheat flour products and risk control strategies for mycotoxins.

The fate of Alternaria toxin tenuazonic acid (TeA) during the processing chain of wheat flour products was systemically evaluated. TeA was analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in wheat grains and the corresponding wheat flour products produced throughout the whole chain. The results indicated that TeA contamination in wheat grains largely determines the level of TeA toxin present in byproducts, semi-finished products, and finished products of the processing of four types of simulated processed wheat flour products (e.g., dry noodles, steamed breads, baked breads, and biscuits). The different food processing techniques had different effects on the fate of TeA. Wheat flour processing can reduce the TeA content in wheat grains by 58.7-83.2 %, indicating that wheat flour processing is a key step in reducing the TeA content in the food chain. Among the four types of wheat flour products, the decreases in TeA content in biscuits (69.8-76.7 %) were greater than those in dry noodles (15.5-22.3 %) and steamed breads (24.9-43.6 %). In addition, the decreasing effect of TeA was especially obvious in the wheat flour product chain with a high level of contamination. The processing factors (PFs) for TeA were as low as 0.20 for the four wheat processing methods and as high as 1.24 for the dry noodle processing method. At the average and 95th percentiles, dietary exposure to TeA in Chinese consumers including infants and young children did not exceed the relevant threshold value of toxicological concern (TTC) of TeA (1.5 µg/kg body weight per day), indicating an acceptable health risk for Chinese consumers via wheat flour products. These findings provide new insight into the fate of TeA in the food chain and mycotoxin control on the safety of wheat flour products and public health.

Rational selection of 4,4',4″-(1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triyl) trianiline-based covalent organic framework as adsorbent for effective co-extraction of aflatoxins, zearalenone and its metabolites from food and biological samples.

Aflatoxins, zearalenone and its metabolites, as representative hazard mycotoxins cause adverse effects on food safety and human health. Developing a sensitive and reliable extraction and detection method is of great importance for monitoring their residue and exposure levels. In contrast to traditional trial-and-error selection steps, 4,4',4″-(1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triyl) trianiline covalent-bonding with 2,5-dihydroxyterephthalaldehyde, namely TAPT-OH-COF was screened as a potential adsorbent utilizing density functional theory calculations prior to the synthesis procedure. After experimental verification, magnetic TAPT-OH-COFs were prepared, characterized and applied for the extraction of aflatoxins, zearalenone and its metabolites from food and biological samples, coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrophy detection. Under the optimal conditions, the developed method exhibited low limits of quantification (0.05-0.50 µg/kg), satisfactory recoveries (75.8 %-110.9 %) and good precision with intraday and interday relative standard deviations (RSDs) not exceeding 12.2 %. This study may provide great potential for the selection of candidate adsorbents for multi-mycotoxins extraction from complex samples.

Nutritional conditions affecting of selenium nanoparticles synthesized by Fusarium oxysporum (CCASU-2023-F9), and their biological activities against mycotoxin-producing fungi isolated from animal feed.

One of the most promising biologically based nanomanufacturing processes is the production of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) by fungi. The use of these biosynthesized nanoparticles in agricultural practices has emerged as a new approach for controlling pathogen growth and mycotoxin production. In the present study, different chemical and physical parameters were investigated for the growth of Fusarium oxysporum (CCASU-2023-F9) to increase selenite reduction and obtain the highest yield of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs). Fusarium oxysporum (CCASU-2023-F9) exhibited tolerance to up to 1 mM sodium selenite (Na2SeO3), accompanied by red coloration of the medium, which suggested the reduction of selenite and the formation of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs). Reduced selenite was quantified using inductively coupled plasma‒mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and the results revealed that Fusarium oxysporum (CCASU-2023-F9) is able to transform 45.5% and 50.9% of selenite into elemental selenium by using fructose and urea as the best carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively. An incubation temperature of 30 °C was the best physical condition at which 67.4% of the selenite was transformed into elemental selenium. The results also indicated that pH 7 was the optimum pH, as it displayed 27.2% selenite reduction with a net dry weight of 6.8 mg/mL. Increasing the concentration of sulfate resulted in a significant increase in selenite reduction, as it reached a maximum value of 75.3% at 0.15% g/ml sulfate. The maximum reduction in sodium selenite content was 85.2% at a C/N ratio of 2:1. The biosynthesized SeNPs exhibited antifungal activity against several fungi, such as Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, and Fusarium oxysporum, that were isolated from animal and poultry feed. Elevated SeNP concentrations (10500 ppm) significantly inhibited fungal growth. SeNPs at a concentration of 5000 ppm inhibited aflatoxin production (B1, B2, G1, and G2) by A. flavus, in addition to inhibiting mycotoxin production (T2 toxin, fumonisin B1, zearaleone, fusarin C, and moniliformin) by F. oxysporum. In conclusion, the results revealed favorable nutritional conditions for the maximum production of SeNPs by Fusarium oxysporum (CCASU-2023-F9) and indicated the marked inhibitory effect of SeNPs on mycotoxins that contaminate animal feed, causing serious consequences for animal health, and that lead to improving the quality of commercially produced animal feed. The obtained results can serve as a basis for commercial applicability.

Development of a high-throughput UHPLC-MS/MS method for the analysis of Fusarium and Alternaria toxins in cereals and cereal-based food.

A QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe)-based multi-mycotoxin method was developed, analyzing 24 (17 free and 7 modified) Alternaria and Fusarium toxins in cereals via ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). A modified QuEChERS approach was optimized for sample preparation. Quantification was conducted using a combination of stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA) for nine toxins and matrix-matched calibration for ten toxins. Quantification via a structurally similar internal standard was conducted for four analytes. Alternariol-9-sulfate (AOH-9-S) was measured qualitatively. Limits of detection (LODs) were between 0.004 µg/kg for enniatin A1 (ENN A1) and 3.16 µg/kg for nivalenol (NIV), while the limits of quantification were between 0.013 and 11.8 µg/kg, respectively. The method was successfully applied to analyze 136 cereals and cereal-based foods, including 28 cereal-based infant food products. The analyzed samples were frequently contaminated with Alternaria toxins, proving their ubiquitous occurrence. Interestingly, in many of those samples, some modified Alternaria toxins occurred, mainly alternariol-3-sulfate (AOH-3-S) and alternariol monomethyl ether-3-sulfate (AME-3-S), thus highlighting the importance of including modified mycotoxins in the routine analysis as they may significantly add to the total exposure of their parent toxins. Over 95% of the analyzed samples were contaminated with at least one toxin. Despite the general contamination, no maximum or indicative levels were exceeded.

A QuEChERS method based on octadecyl-bonded hectorite for the determination of ten mycotoxins in yak ghee.

To develop a clean-up material suitable for high-fat food matrices for detecting mycotoxins in yak ghee, an octadecyl-bonded hectorite (Hectorite@NHCO(CH2)17CH3) was synthesized through multi-step chemical reactions. A modified QuEChERS-HPLC-MS/MS method for detecting ten mycotoxins in sesame oil in yak ghee was established using Hectorite@NHCO(CH2)17CH3 as clean-up agent. It involved extracting mycotoxin contaminants using acidified acetonitrile and employing the Hectorite@NHCO(CH2)17CH3 to remove interfering substances from the extract. The purified samples were then analyzed using HPLC-MS/MS. Within a linear range of 1.0-500 µg/kg, there was a good linear relationship between the quantification ion peak area of the target analytes and the corresponding concentrations (R2 ≥ 0.9991). The limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 0.10 µg/kg to 18.62 µg/kg and the limit of quantitation (LOQ) ranged 0.32-62.07 µg/kg. The recoveries at low, medium and high concentrations (25, 100 and 500 µg/kg) ranged from 72.2% to 113.9%, with relative standard deviations (RSD) between 3.2% and 17.5%. The intra-day and inter-day precision met experimental requirements. The proposed method was characterized by a high accuracy and precision, and it could cater to the current demand for detecting ten mycotoxins in yak ghee.

Glucosinolate derivatives as antifungals: A review.

Fungal infections are becoming a severe threat to the security of global public health due to the extensive use of antibiotic medications and the rise in immune-deficient patients globally. Additionally, there is an increase in the development of fungus resistance to available antifungal medications. It is necessary to focus on the development of new antifungal medications in order to address these problems. The wide range of chemical structures, low cost, high availability, high antimicrobial action, and lack of adverse effects are the characteristics of plant secondary metabolites. In order to find and develop new antifungal medications, plant secondary metabolites like glucosinolate (GSL) derivatives are crucial sources of information. These natural compounds are enzymatically transformed into isothiocyanates (ITCs), nitriles, epithionitriles, oxazolidin-2-thion, and thiocyanate when they get mechanically damaged. The current review offers a thorough understanding of how isothiocyanates affect fungi with detailed mechanism. Along with this antifungal activity of nitriles, epithionitriles, oxazolidin-2-thion, and thiocyanate are mentioned. The review summarizes our present understanding of the following subjects: role of isothiocyanate by inhibiting aflatoxin biosynthesis, effect of isothiocyanate on transcriptomes, isothiocyanate targets cell membrane, role of isothiocyanate in efflux, and the role of isothiocyanate in synergistic activity. Antifungal activity of nitrile, epithionitrile, oxazolidine-2-thion, and thiocyanate is mentioned. Cytotoxicity study and clinical trials data were also added. More extensive studies will be needed in this field to assess safety concerns and clinical efficacies of GSL derivatives.

Dipicolinic acid reduces Epicoccum sorghinum symptoms on maize and inhibits tenuazonic acid biosynthesis.

BACKGROUND: Epicoccum sorghinum is a pathogenic fungus that causes leaf spot in a wide range of plants, including maize, and synthesizes the mycotoxin tenuazonic acid (TEA), which is carcinogenic. Despite the relevant economic and yield losses caused by E. sorghinum worldwide, methods for the control of this pathogen are lacking. RESULTS: In this work, the efficacy of Bacillus-produced dipicolinic acid (DPA) for control of E. sorghinum was evaluated using in vitro and in vivo assays, and compared with the efficacy of three commercial fungicides, including carbendazim, prochloraz, and thiram. DPA inhibited E. sorghinum mycelial growth, and conidia germination, and produced important alterations in E. sorghinum hyphae. Interestingly, 10 mM DPA reduced TEA biosynthesis by 86.6%. Although DPA rapidly degraded on maize leaves, 10 mM DPA showed higher preventive (67.4% lesion length inhibition) and inhibitory (89.5% lesion length inhibition) efficacies for the control of E. sorghinum on maize leaves compared to the commercial fungicides. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, this study presents the first method for the control of E. sorghinum on maize and demonstrates that DPA application is a suitable approach to inhibit E. sorghinum symptoms in plants and TEA biosynthesis. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Impact of Fusarium spp. on different maize commercial hybrids: disease evaluation and mycotoxin contamination.

Maize is one of the most important crops cultivated worldwide, whose production can be affected by the presence of several pathogens. Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium graminearum are the most predominant pathogens affecting maize ears. However, few studies have been focused on studying the interaction between both pathogens in field conditions. For this reason, the aim of the present work was to evaluate the interaction between F. graminearum and F. verticillioides in different genotypes of maize under field conditions. Field experiments were carried out during two growing seasons in Azul, Argentina, including 12 commercial hybrids of maize, which were inoculated with F. graminearum, F. verticillioides, and a mixture of both pathogens. Phenotypic traits (plant height, plant diameter, tiller and cob number, and radiation interception), disease evaluation, and mycotoxin contamination were analyzed. The results showed significant differences between genotypes in disease severity (DS) for both years. In general terms, higher values of DS were reported in 2020 (21.70% ± 0.40) than in 2021 (16.50% ± 0.20). Different climatic conditions registered along the assay, especially precipitations and relative humidity, could be responsible for the differences observed over the years. Moreover, no significant correlations were found regarding DS and mycotoxin contamination for each genotype. For these reasons, an automatic correspondence between DS and mycotoxin contamination could lead to wrong agronomic decisions. The present study points out novel information regarding plant-pathogen interaction (maize-F. verticillioides/F. graminearum) under field conditions that could be useful for future maize breeding programmes.

Integrating CdIn2S4 semiconductors with S-vacancy MoS2 nanosheets to fabricate a multi-channel aptasensing chip for photoelectrochemical detection of multiple mycotoxins.

BACKGROUND: The importance of multi-target simultaneous detection lies in its ability to significantly boost detection efficiency, making it invaluable for rapid and cost-effective testing. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensors have emerged as promising candidates for detecting harmful substances and biomarkers, attributable to their unparalleled sensitivity, minimal background signal, cost-effectiveness, equipment simplicity, and outstanding repeatability. However, designing an effective multi-target detection strategy remains a challenging task in the PEC sensing field. Consequently, there is a pressing need to address the development of PEC sensors capable of simultaneously detecting multiple targets. RESULTS: CdIn2S4/V-MoS2 heterojunctions were successfully prepared via a hydrothermal method. These heterojunctions exhibited a high photocurrent intensity, representing a 1.53-fold enhancement compared to CdIn2S4 alone. Next, we designed a multi-channel aptasensing chip using ITO as the substrate. Three working electrodes were created via laser etching and subsequently modified with CdIn2S4/V-MoS2 heterojunctions. Thiolated aptamers were then self-assembled onto the CdIn2S4/V-MoS2 heterojunctions via covalent bonds, serving as recognition tool. By empolying the CdIn2S4/V-MoS2 heterojunctions as the sensing platform and aptamers as recognition tool, we successfully developed a disposable aptasensing chip for the simultaneous PEC detection of three typical mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN)). This aptasensing chip exhibited wide detection range for AFB1 (0.05-50 ng/mL), OTA (0.05-500 ng/mL), and ZEN (0.1-250 ng/mL). Furthermore, it demonstrated ultra-low detection limits of 0.017 ng/mL for AFB1, 0.016 ng/mL for OTA, and 0.033 ng/mL for ZEN. SIGNIFICANCE AND NOVELTY: The aptasensing chip stands out for its cost-effectiveness, simplicity of fabrication, and multi-channel capabilities. The versatility and practicality enable it to serve as a powerful platform for designing multi-channel PEC aptasensors. With its ability to detect multiple targets with high sensitivity and specificity, the aptasensing chip holds immense potential for applications across diverse fields, such as environmental monitoring, clinical diagnostics, and food safety monitoring, where multi-target detection is crucial.

Factors influencing fumonisin B1 contamination in maize: insights from two production regions in Costa Rica.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop worldwide. Contaminated maize kernels pose a significant mycotoxin exposure risk for humans in Latin America. Fumonisins, the most prevalent mycotoxin in maize, typically occur during pre-harvest conditions leading to significant economic losses. Various factors, including weather conditions, may influence this contamination. This study aimed to determine the association between fumonisin B1 (FB1) contamination, prevalence of Fusarium verticillioides, weather conditions and kernel quality in the two primary maize production areas in Costa Rica (Brunca and Chorotega). All maize samples (100%) showed FB1 contamination, with higher concentrations in samples from Brunca region, consistent with the presence of F. verticilliodes. Weather conditions appeared to play an important role in this contamination, since Brunca region had the highest mean temperature and relative humidity after maize silking (R1) and the total monthly rainfall in this region was significantly higher during the last two months of maize cultivation (grain-filling and physiological maturity stages R3 to R6). Interestingly, this study found a negative correlation between grain damage and kernel contamination with FB1 and F. verticillioides. The concentration of mineral nutrients in kernels from both regions was largely similar. Most nutrients in kernels exhibited a negative correlation with FB1, particularly nitrogen. Zinc and phosphorus were the only nutrients in kernels showing a positive correlation with FB1 in samples from the Brunca region. The results highlight elevated levels of FB1 contamination in maize and contribute to a better understanding of pre-harvest factors influencing FB1 contamination in tropical conditions.

Mycotoxins and coccidiosis in poultry - co-occurrence, interaction, and effects.

Avian coccidiosis, a common disease caused by Eimeria species, results in significant losses in global poultry production. Mycotoxins are low-molecular-weight natural products (i.e., small molecules) produced as secondary metabolites by filamentous fungi and they have the potential to economically and significantly affect global poultry production. Little is known about the relationship between mycotoxins and avian coccidiosis, although they often co-occur in the field. This comprehensive review examines the intricate relationship between mycotoxins and avian coccidiosis, in particular how mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes as well as Fusarium mycotoxins, compromise the health of the poultry flock and open the door to Eimeria parasites in the gut. In addition, this review sheds light on the immunosuppressive effects of mycotoxins, their disruption of cellular signaling pathways, and the consequent exacerbation of coccidiosis infections. The mechanisms of mycotoxin toxicity are also reviewed, emphasizing direct damage to intestinal epithelial cells, impaired nutrient absorption, inflammation, oxidative stress, and changes in the gut microbiota. Finally, the consequences for the prevention and treatment of coccidiosis when mycotoxins are present in the feed are discussed. This review emphasizes the need for effective management strategies to mitigate the combined risks of mycotoxins and coccidiosis and highlights the complexity of diagnosing and controlling these interrelated problems in poultry. The review advocates a holistic approach that includes strict feed management, disease prevention measures and regular monitoring to maintain the health and productivity of poultry against these significant challenges.

Occurrence of modified mycotoxins in Latin America: an up-to-date review.

The Latin America region has a considerable extent of varied climate conditions: from tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate to temperate. Among the surface territory, different agricultural products are produced, making them an important food source for human consumption. Fungal species commonly colonize those important agricultural products and often contaminate them with mycotoxins that have a major impact on health, welfare, and productivity. Nowadays, special attention is paid to modified mycotoxins, which are those that cannot be detected by conventional analytical methods. However, little data about their natural occurrence in food and feed is available, especially in Latin American countries, where, among all the countries in this region, only a few of them are working on this subject. Thus, the present review summarizes the published information available in order to determine the possible human exposure risk to these toxins.