Assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices on vaccine usage among small ruminant farmers in the Northern Region of Bangladesh.

Background and Aim: Small ruminants require vaccines to prevent and manage diseases. Unfortunately, no studies have been conducted in Bangladesh to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of small ruminant farmers (SRF) regarding vaccine use against infectious diseases, affecting the success of vaccination campaigns. The present study aims to assess SRF's KAP regarding vaccines, revealing gaps and barriers to efficient vaccination. Materials and Methods: Two hundred and twenty-eight SRF in northern Bangladesh were surveyed in a cross-sectional study. Data were collected from random participants through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire. KAP levels were categorized as "good" or "poor" and "positive" or "negative" using a scoring method with a 60% cutoff. The analysis comprised the utilization of descriptive statistics as well as logistic regression models. Results: Results showed that most participants were female (60.5%), aged 31-40 (34.2%), with secondary education (28.1%), and vaccination training (22.8%). While 75% knew about vaccines, only 37.3% understood their role in preventing infectious diseases, and 63.6% in reducing antibiotic use 68.4% of farmers were aware of negative drawbacks, and 61.8% reported vaccinating their herds. About 42.1% of the farmers had good knowledge, 52.6% had a positive attitude, and 22.8% followed good practices. Female farmers with graduate degrees and 6-10 years of goat farming experience, but not those with vaccination training, demonstrated stronger knowledge. Female farmers with a graduate degree and 6-10 years of goat farming experience displayed positive attitudes. Female goat farmers from Thakurgaon had a higher likelihood of following good vaccination practices than those with vaccination training. Conclusion: The study unearths disparities in KAP scores among farmers. To effectively address KAP gaps concerning vaccine usage and prevent potential infectious diseases, it is essential to design focused educational and training programs. About 52.6% of SRF hold a positive view toward vaccines.

Validation of a reference interval for symmetric dimethylarginine in healthy goats and its comparison to values in goats with obstructive urolithiasis.

BACKGROUND: Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA), a sensitive biomarker for detecting renal injury, has not been characterized in goats. Obstructive urolithiasis (OU) is the most common urinary tract disease in male small ruminants. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVE: Establish an SDMA reference interval (RI) in healthy adult goats and describe SDMA concentrations in goats with OU. We hypothesize that the SDMA RI in healthy adult goats will be similar to that of other adult veterinary species and that SDMA can be utilized to assess the renal function of goats experiencing OU. ANIMALS: Fifty-five healthy adult male and female goats from a university herd were enrolled for SDMA RI development. Twenty male and female goats from a university herd were enrolled for validation of the SDMA RI established. Thirteen male goats diagnosed with OU were enrolled. METHODS: Clinical trial. Serum samples for all animals enrolled were collected and analyzed for SDMA using an immunoassay (IDEXX Laboratories, Inc); goats with OU had additional blood work analyzed (PCV, total solids, and serum biochemistry). Symmetric dimethylarginine and other values in goats with OU were analyzed and compared at specific time points. RESULTS: The SDMA RI for healthy, adult goats is 8.03 µg/dL (90% CI 4.81-11.04) to 25.93 µg/dL (90% CI 22.88-28.97). There was no correlation identified between serum creatinine and SDMA in goats with OU. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: The SDMA RI for adult goats is higher than in other adult large animal species. Use of SDMA in goats with OU is not useful in assessing their renal function.

Identification and characterization of linear epitopes of monoclonal antibodies against the capsid proteins of small ruminant lentiviruses.

Maedi-visna virus (MVV) and caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) are members of a group of genetically highly homologous lentiviruses collectively referred to as small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs). SRLVs can infect sheep, goats and other small ruminants, causing multisystemic disease with progressive and persistent inflammatory changes, severely reducing animal productivity and impeding animal trade. The capsid protein of SRLVs, p28, is highly conserved among strains and is a commonly used marker for the detection of SRLVs. In this study, two monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), designated G8F7 and A10C12, against p28 were generated using a recombinant p28 protein expressed in Escherichia coli as an immunogen. Functional analysis showed that these two monoclonal antibodies could be used in iELISA, immunofluorescence assays (IFA) and western blot assays to detect p28 or Gag precursor proteins of SRLVs. Two linear epitopes, 61GNRAQKELIQGKLNEEA77 (E61-77) and 187CQKQMDRVLGTRVQQATVEEKMQACR212 (E187-212), which are recognized by G8F7 and A10C12, respectively, were identified through truncation of the GST-fused p28. Amino acid sequence alignment showed that the epitope E61-77 is conserved among SRLVs, with a dominant mutation site (K72R) that does not disrupt recognition by G8F7. E187-212 was found to exhibit variability among SRLVs, but the majority of mutant epitopes are recognized by A10C12, with the exception of a mutant epitope from an isolate with undefined subtypes from Ovis aries, which was not recognized. These findings may facilitate future study of SRLVs and promote the development of methods for the detection of these viruses.

Associations of Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Dairy Goat Farmers in Greece with Biosecurity-Related Practices in the Farms.

Given the significance of goat farming in Greece, our study aimed to explore biosecurity conditions on goat farms and refers to an investigation performed on 119 farms countrywide in Greece. The objective of the present work was to evaluate and report on potential associations between the socio-demographic characteristics of goat farmers and practices that play a role in biosecurity on farms. Data were obtained during a large cross-sectional study performed across Greece in 119 goat herds. The socio-demographic characteristics of farmers, as well as 16 variables related to biosecurity, were recorded; these were practices or events that could potentially enhance or compromise biosecurity on farms. A score based on all the biosecurity-related variables was devised by assigning a '1' or '-1' mark for each variable recorded on a farm that could enhance or compromise, respectively, biosecurity. Among variables potentially enhancing biosecurity on farms, the application of disinfections on the farm and the maintenance of isolation for sick animals were practiced more frequently; among variables potentially compromising biosecurity on farms, the presence of hunters in the area around the farm and grazing practices for animals were recorded more frequently. The median overall score for biosecurity-related practices for all farms in the study was 1 (interquartile range: 2.5; minimum: -4; maximum: 5). Among socio-demographic characteristics, the presence of working staff on a farm was associated with five individual biosecurity-related practices and the length of farming experience with three individual biosecurity-related practices. In the multivariable analysis, female farmers (p = 0.007) and the presence of working staff on the farm (p = 0.025) emerged as the two significant socio-demographic characteristics with an association with the overall biosecurity level on farms. This knowledge can be useful when developing biosecurity programs on goat farms. Recognition of locally applied farm-level practices enhancing biosecurity could form a basis for farmers to apply more rigorous and effective relevant plans.

Investigation, management and control of a maedi outbreak in Norway in 2019-2020.

BACKGROUND: Visna-maedi is a notifiable disease in Norway, and eliminating the disease is a national goal. The import of sheep into Norway is very limited, and strict regulations apply to the movement of small ruminants between flocks and within defined geographical regions. Several outbreaks have occurred in the last 50 years, and the most recent before 2019 occurred in Trøndelag county in Central Norway in 2002. A national surveillance programme for small ruminant lentivirus infection exists since 2003. RESULTS: In 2019, the national surveillance programme detected seropositive animals for small ruminant lentivirus in a sheep flock in Trøndelag. Based on the result of polymerase chain reaction analysis and histopathological findings, the Norwegian Food Safety Authority concluded the diagnosis of maedi. Further investigations detected maedi in eight additional sheep flocks in the same county. The flocks were placed under restrictions, and the authorities also imposed restrictions on 82 contact flocks. Sequencing of partial gag genes indicated that the virus in the current outbreak was related to the small ruminant lentivirus detected in the same area between 2002 and 2005. CONCLUSIONS: The outbreak investigation shows the need for sensitive and specific diagnostic methods, and an improved and more targeted surveillance strategy. It also demonstrates the risk of disease spreading between flocks through animal movements, and highlights the importance of biosecurity and structured livestock trade. In addition to allowing livestock trade only from flocks documented free from maedi, it may be necessary to monitor sheep flocks over many years, when aiming to eliminate maedi from the Norwegian sheep population.

Circulation of small ruminant lentivirus in endangered goat and sheep breeds of Southern Italy.

According to the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) of the FAO, Italy has one of the largest numbers of local small ruminant breeds among European countries. In Southern Italy, namely the Campania Region, Bagnolese and Laticauda sheep breeds and Cilentana goat breeds are considered endangered according to the DAD-IS. Conservation of endangered animal breeds is a goal of the European Union (EU). However, the role of infectious diseases as risk factors for endangered breeds has rarely been considered. Small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLV) infect sheep and goats, causing slow-progressive, persistent, and debilitating diseases that can lead to animal death and productivity loss. In this study, we investigated the presence of SRLV in Bagnolese, Laticauda, and Cilentana breeds using a commercial ELISA in parallel with an in-house ELISA. The results of the two tests were in good agreement (Cohen Kappa 0.84, 95 % CI = 0.76-0.93). Discrepancies between the two tests were resolved using western blotting. In total, 430 samples were tested (248 Bagnolese, 125 Laticauda, and 57 Cilentana). The apparent prevalence rates were 12.5 %, 6.4 %, and 1.7 % in Bagnolese, Laticauda, and Cilentana, respectively. In the molecular analysis of 11 proviral partial sequences, subtypes B2 and A24 were identified in two Bagnolese herds. Owing to the beneficial role of sheep and goat breeding in marginal areas, it is important to screen the entire population and implement control/eradication of SRLV infections in conjunction with each conservation program.

A high-density genome-wide approach reveals novel genetic markers linked to small ruminant lentivirus susceptibility in sheep.

Visna/Maedi virus (VMV) is lentiviral disease of sheep responsible for severe production losses. Multiple genomic regions associated with infection were reported indicating genetic complexity. In this study, a combined genome-wide approach using a high-density SNP array has been performed, comparing VMV-infected (n = 78) and non-infected (n = 66) individuals of the Valle del Belice breed. The serological tests showed a seroprevalence of 26%. The comparison among results from different approaches (GWAS, Fisher's exact test and the FST analysis) revealed two association signals: on OAR03 close to the GRIN2B gene and on OAR05 close to the TMEM232 gene. To the best of our knowledge, there has been no previous association between these genes and lentiviral infection in any species. The GRIN2B gene plays a role in pain response, synaptic transmission, and receptor clustering, while TMEM232 is involved in the development of immune-related disorders. The results highlighted new aspects of the genetic complexity related to the resistance/susceptibility to VMV in sheep, confirming that studies on different breeds can lead to different results. The ideal approach for validation of the markers identified in our study is to use samples from a population independent from the discovery population with the same phenotype used in the discovery stage.

Morphological and physiological features in small ruminants: an adaptation strategy for survival under changing climatic conditions.

Climate change due to natural human activity is a significant global phenomenon affecting the sustainability of most countries' livestock industries. Climate change factors such as ambient temperature, relative humidity, direct and indirect sun radiation, and wind have significant consequences on feed, water, pasture availability, and the re-emergence of diseases in livestock. All these variables have a considerable impact on livestock production and welfare. However, animals' ability to respond and adapt to changes in climate differs within species and breeds. Comparatively, small ruminants are more adaptive to the adverse effects of climate change than large ruminants in terms of reproduction performance, survival, production yield, and resistance to re-emerging diseases. This is mainly due to their morphological features against harsh climate effects. Tropical breeds are more adaptive to the adverse effects of climate change than small temperate ruminants. However, the difference in morphological characteristics towards adaptation to the impact of climate change will guide the development of suitable policies on the selection of breeding stock suitable for different regions in the world. The choice of breeds based on morphological features and traits is an essential strategy in mitigating and minimizing the effects of climate change on small ruminants' production and welfare. This review highlights the adaptive morphological features within and among breeds of small ruminants toward adaptation to climate change.

Qualitative characteristics of sheep's and goat's milk in Albania.

Cost-effective methods are crucial in small-scale operations to assess the physicochemical properties of milk, identify potential clinical or subclinical mastitis, and test ß-lactams in small ruminants. The aim was to evaluate the importance of physicochemical characteristics, somatic cells, and antibacterial substances as factors for monitoring the quality and safety of bulk tank milk from sheep and goats. Furthermore, we aimed to elucidate the influence of grazing capacity on the composition of sheep milk. The fat content of sheep milk (n=119) was found to be 7.7%, with a range of 5.3% to 9.9%. The average fat content of dairy goats (n=33) was found to be 4.9%, with a range of 2.8-6.7%. The results indicate that 2.8% of sheep milk samples and 7.8% of goat milk samples exhibited clear positive reactions when assessed using the California mastitis test. ß-lactam antibiotics were present in 0.7% of sheep milk samples, but not in any of the goat milk samples using lateral flow strips. This measurement method can be useful to detect adulterated milk and better understand the quality and safety of small ruminant milk before processing.

Development of a Bead-Based Multiplex Fluorescent Immunoassay to Detect Antibodies against Maedi-Visna Virus in Sheep.

The Maedi-visna virus (MVV) causes a persistent infection in small ruminants, and its high genetic heterogeneity affects the performance of diagnostic tests when used in different populations. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a bead-based multiplex immunoassay tailored to detect antibodies against a Norwegian MVV strain. We used tissue samples from 14 PCR-positive sheep from a recent MVV outbreak in Norway to sequence the viral strain and produced recombinant antigens based on sequences from one animal. The assay included commercial TM-A and recombinant Norwegian p25, p16-25 and SU5 antigens. Cut-off values for each antigen were determined using receiver operating characteristic curves on 40 ELISA-negative and 67 ELISA-positive samples from the outbreak. The intraplate and interplate repeatability were investigated by testing a quadruplicate of five samples over three days, while the analytical sensitivity (aSe) and specificity (aSp) were measured in comparison to a commercial ELISA. The repeatability showed a coefficient of variation below 15% for most positive samples. The aSe was equal or higher for the multiplex assay than the ELISA, and the aSp of each antigen was 91.7, 93.3, 95.0 and 93.3% for p25, p16-25, SU5 and TM-A, respectively. The assay shows promising results; however, further evaluations of diagnostic characteristics are necessary before implementation in the Norwegian surveillance programme.

Foot-and-mouth disease seroprevalence is higher in young female crossbred sheep and goats compared to their counterparts in the border area between Pakistan and Afghanistan.

OBJECTIVE: Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease in ruminants that causes significant economic losses worldwide. However, the prevalence of FMD virus (FMDV) in small ruminants has been overlooked in Pakistan. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of FMD in sheep and goats in the border area between Pakistan and Afghanistan. ANIMALS: 800 sheep and goats belongs to age groups of 6 month to > 2 years. METHODS: A total of 800 serum samples were collected from sheep (n = 424) and goats (n = 376) and subjected to structural protein (SP) and 3ABC non-SP (NSP) ELISAs for the detection of antibodies against SP and NSP of the FMDV. RESULTS: For NSP, 340/800 (42.5%) of samples were positive, while SP analysis revealed that serotype O (44.5%) was the most common in sheep and goats, followed by Asia-1 (42%) and A (32%) serotypes. Sheep (39%; 95% CI, 34 to 44) had a higher (P < .05) prevalence of FMD than goats (46%; 95% CI, 41 to 51). Statistically significant (P < .05) differences in the seroprevalence of FMD-SP and FMD-NSPs were observed between various agencies (areas) of the study area. Risk factors such as age, sex, breed, season, flock size, body condition, animal movement, and production system were significantly (P < .05) associated with FMDV prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that FMD is highly prevalent in sheep and goats in the border areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Therefore, outbreak investigation teams should be arranged at the border level to develop FMD risk-based surveillance and control plans for small ruminants in order to mitigate infection risks.

A Combined Approach for the Characterization of Small Ruminant Lentivirus Strains Circulating in the Islands and Mainland of Greece.

Small ruminant lentiviruses are a group of viruses infecting goat and sheep worldwide. These viruses exhibit an extraordinary degree of genetic and antigenic variability that severely influence in vivo and in vitro features, as well as diagnostic test results. Small ruminant farming is the most important animal farming business in Greece, with a high impact on the Greek primary economy. Although SRLV infection and its impact on animal production are well established in the country, little is known about the circulating SRLV strains and their prevalence. The aim of this study was to characterize SRLVs circulating in Greece with a combined serological and molecular approach, using the bulk milk matrix collected from 60 farms in different municipalities. This study allowed us to estimate a seroprevalence of around 52% at the herd level. The B1, B2 and A3 subtypes and a novel A viral cluster were identified. Moreover, the amplicon sequencing method allowed us to identify more than one viral subtype in a sample. These results again confirm the high variability of these viruses and highlight the importance of the constant monitoring of viral evolution, in particular in antigens of diagnostic interest.

Genetic Characterization of Small Ruminant Lentiviruses Isolated from Dairy Sheep in Greece.

The high genetic heterogeneity of small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLV) renders the genetic characterization of the circulating strains crucial for the epidemiological investigation and the designation of effective diagnostic tools. In Greece, research data regarding the genetic diversity of the circulating SRLV strains is scarce, hindering the implementation of efficient surveillance and control programs. The objective of the study was to genetically characterize SRLV strains isolated from intensive dairy sheep farms in Greece and evaluate the variability of the immunodominant regions of the capsid protein. For this reason, a total of 12 SRLV-infected animals from four intensive dairy sheep farms with purebred Chios and Lacaune ewes were used for the amplification and sequencing of an 800 bp gag-pol fragment. The phylogenetic analyses revealed a breed-related circulation of strains; Chios ewes were infected with strains belonging exclusively to a separate group of genotype A, whereas strains belonging to subtype B2 were isolated from Lacaune ewes. Immunodominant epitopes of capsid protein were quite conserved among the strains of the same genotype, except for the Major Homology Region which showed some unique mutations with potential effects on viral evolution. The present study contributes to the extension of the current knowledge regarding the genetic diversity of SRLV strains circulating in sheep in Greece. However, broader genetic characterization studies are warranted for the exploration of possible recombinant events and the more comprehensive classification of the circulating strains.

Phylogenetic analysis of small ruminant lentiviruses in Mongolian sheep supports an ancient east-west split for the genotype A.

The ovine maedi-visna virus (MVV) and caprine arthritis-encephalitis virus (CAEV) are small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) with striking genetic and structural similarities. The presence of SRLV in Mongolian sheep and goats was serologically demonstrated more than a decade ago; however, the viral genotype remains unknown. In total, 329 blood samples were collected from two sheep breeds (i.e., Khalkha and Sumber) in Tov, Govisumber, Arkhangay, Dornogovi, Zavkhan, and Sukhbaatar provinces, Mongolia. Serological and phylogenetic analyses were performed regardless of any apparent clinical signs, although most of the animals appeared healthy. All sheep in three of the six provinces were seronegative, whereas the seroprevalence in the Tov, Govisumber, and Zavkhan provinces averaged 7.9%. Genomic DNA from seropositive animals was tested using hemi-nested polymerase chain reaction, and sub-genomic SRLV sequences were determined from nine samples. Mongolian SRLV sequences clustered within the divergent subtype A22, which was previously found only in Fertile Crescent regions, including Lebanon, Jordan, and Iran, where the first sheep-domestication (Ovis aries) occurred. According to the phylogenetic analysis, genotype A has two ancestors from the ancient Fertile Crescent: (1) Turkish strains and (2) Iranian, Jordanian, and Lebanese strains. The first ancestor spread westward, whereas the second spread eastward, ultimately reaching Mongolia.

Review of sheep breeding and genetic research in Türkiye.

The livestock industry in Türkiye is vital to the country's agricultural sector and economy. In particular, sheep products are an important source of income and livelihood for many Turkish smallholder farmers in semi-arid and highland areas. Türkiye is one of the largest sheep producers in the world and its sheep production system is heavily dependent on indigenous breeds. Given the importance of the sheep industry in Türkiye, a systematic literature review on sheep breeding and genetic improvement in the country is needed for the development and optimization of sheep breeding programs using modern approaches, such as genomic selection. Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive literature review on the current characteristics of sheep populations and farms based on the most up-to-date census data and breeding and genetic studies obtained from scientific articles. The number of sheep has increased in recent years, mainly due to the state's policy of supporting livestock farming and the increase in consumer demand for sheep dairy products with high nutritional and health benefits. Most of the genetic studies on indigenous Turkish sheep have been limited to specific traits and breeds. The use of genomics was found to be incipient, with genomic analysis applied to only two major breeds for heritability or genome-wide association studies. The scope of heritability and genome-wide association studies should be expanded to include traits and breeds that have received little or no attention. It is also worth revisiting genetic diversity studies using genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism markers. Although there was no report of genomic selection in Turkish sheep to date, genomics could contribute to overcoming the difficulties of implementing traditional pedigree-based breeding programs that require accurate pedigree recording. As indigenous sheep breeds are better adapted to the local environmental conditions, the proper use of breeding strategies will contribute to increased income, food security, and reduced environmental footprint in a sustainable manner.

Development and characterization of a novel nanobody with SRMV neutralizing activity.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, contact infectious disease caused by the small ruminant morbillivirus (SRMV), and its morbidity in goats and sheep can be up to 100% with significant mortality. Nanobody generated from camelid animals such as alpaca has attracted wide attention because of its unique advantages compared with conventional antibodies. The main objective of this study was to produce specific nanobodies against SRMV and identify its characteristics. To obtain the coding gene of SRMV-specific nanobodies, we first constructed an immune phage-displayed library from the VHH repertoire of alpaca that was immunized with SRMV-F and -H proteins. By using phage display technology, the target antigen-specific VHHs can be obtained after four consecutive rounds of biopanning. Results showed that the size of this VHH library was 2.26 × 1010 CFU/mL and the SRMV-F and -H specific phage particles were greatly enriched after four rounds of biopanning. The positive phage clones were selected and sequenced, and total of five independent different sequences of SRMV-specific nanobodies were identified. Subsequently, the DNA fragments of the five nanobodies were cloned into E. coli BL21(DE3), respectively, and three of them were successfully expressed and purified. Specificity and affinity towards inactivated SRMV of these purified nanobodies were then evaluated using the ELISA method. Results demonstrated that NbSRMV-1-1, NbSRMV-2-10, and NbSRMV-1-21 showed no cross-reactivity with other antigens, such as inactivated BTV, inactivated FMDV, His-tag labeled protein, and BSA. The ELISA titer of these three nanobodies against inactivated SRMV was up to 1:1000. However, only NbSRMV-1-21 displayed SRMV neutralizing activity at a maximum dilution of 1:4. The results indicate that the nanobodies against SRMV generated in this study could be useful in future applications. This study provided a novel antibody tool and laid a foundation for the treatment and detection of SRMV.

Serological and Molecular Characterization of Small Ruminant Lentiviruses in Morocco.

Recent studies that investigated the origins of SRLV strains offered new insights into their distribution among domestic ruminants. The aim of the study was to investigate SRLV circulation in Morocco. A total of 51 farms were selected in different geographical locations and tested by screening and genotyping ELISA. Whole blood was used for DNA extraction and nested gag PCR. The sample size allowed for an estimation of prevalence lower than 20% (CI 95%). Surprisingly, a large proportion of screening-positive samples were not correctly serotyped. Sanger and NGS amplicon sequencing approaches allowed us to obtain new sequences even from difficult-to-amplify samples. The serological data support the evidence of an intrinsic difficulty of SRLV to spread, likely due to management practices. The low rate of success by genotyping ELISA led us to suppose that divergent strains might have escaped from diagnostic tools, as partially confirmed by the evidence of an A subtype carrying a mismatch in serotyping epitope. The sequence analysis revealed the circulation of novel B and recombinant A/B subtypes. This study highlights the importance of monitoring viral sequences and their evolution to develop specific diagnostic tests, particularly in countries where control measures are in place.

Retrospective study of Oestrus ovis larvae infestation in small ruminants in Grenada, West Indies.

Oestrosis is a nasal cavity myiasis caused by Oestrus ovis larvae from Oetrus ovis diptera flies in small ruminants. The presence of the larvae in the nasal cavity is known to cause rhinitis and sinusitis which can negatively impact the productivity of small ruminants. The aim of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of Oestrus ovis larvae infestation in sheep and goats presented for necropsy. We reviewed necropsy records of sheep and goats submitted to the Veterinary Pathology diagnostic laboratory at St. George's University from 2001 to 2017. Out of 104 goat necropsy cases, Oestrus ovis larvae were observed in 8 goats giving a prevalence of 7.7% (95% confidence interval (CI):3.38% to 14.6%). Similarly, from the 47 sheep necropsies, Oestus ovis larvae were observed in 4 sheep (8.5%) (95% CI: 2.83% to 20.46%). There was no significant difference in Oestrus ovis larvae infestation rates between sheep and goats (p = 1.000, Fisher's exact test). Oestrosis was an incidental finding in all the small ruminants examined at necropsy. This is the first report on Oestrus ovis larvae infestation in small ruminants in Grenada.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Chlamydia abortus Infection in Sheep and Goats in North-Western Italy.

Chlamydia abortus, although poorly recognized as a human pathogen, is a zoonotic microorganism that can cause many different symptoms in humans, including subclinical infection and fatal illnesses in pregnant women. C. abortus is one of the most common causes of ovine and caprine infectious abortion worldwide, known as the causative agent of the enzootic abortion of ewes (EAE) or ovine enzootic abortion (OEA). To estimate C. abortus seroprevalence and the risk factors related to C. abortus in small ruminants, the sera from 3045 animals (both sheep and goat) belonging to 202 herds were tested and a questionnaire investigating flock management was administered. At the herd level, the true seroprevalence was 56.6% (CI95%: 46.9-66.3%), at sheep-farm and goat-farm level, the true seroprevalence was 71.4% (CI95%: 54.6-88.3%) and 44.8% (CI95%: 41.3-57.0%), respectively. The true seroprevalence was significantly higher among the sheep than the goats. The logistic regression model identified four factors associated with Chlamydia seropositivity: flock size (i.e., farms with >50 heads), contact with cattle, introduction of animals, and Coxiella seropositivity. The study evidenced a high seroprevalence of Chlamydia abortus in small ruminant farms in the Piedmont region. Considering its zoonotic potential and the health consequences in humans, communication to farmers on the importance of vaccination, as well as the sensibilization of farm vets, seem to be strategical.

Successful use of intravenous and oral levetiracetam in a goat to control refractory seizures secondary to suspected polioencephalomalacia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the clinical efficacy and plasma concentrations of levetiracetam in a goat with seizures. ANIMAL: A 5-month-old doeling. CLINICAL PRESENTATION, PROGRESSION, AND PROCEDURES: The goat was referred because of progressive anorexia and lethargy over 3 days. Clinical signs consisted of weakness, obtundation, opisthotonos, anisocoria, and cortical blindness. Initial evaluation was most consistent with polioencephalomalacia. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Neurologic improvement occurred within 4 hours of thiamine administration, with appetite returning over 12 hours. On day 3 of hospitalization, the goat suffered acute onset repetitive seizures that were incompletely responsive to standard interventions over 3 hours. Administration of IV levetiracetam (60 mg/kg) produced resolution of seizure activity within 20 minutes. Levetiracetam was continued twice daily IV, then PO after day 6. Plasma concentrations were above or within therapeutic ranges (5 to 45 µg/mL) as previously established for other species, following both IV and PO levetiracetam. Oral administration (60 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h) resulted in plasma levetiracetam concentrations of 48.1 µg/mL 2 hours after a dose and 23.4 µg/mL 2 hours prior to the next dose. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Levetiracetam is a newer anticonvulsant commonly used in humans and small animals due to its efficacy, cost, and wide safety margin. Its use has not previously been reported in domestic small ruminants. In this case, levetiracetam showed excellent clinical efficacy in the face of refractory seizures, with no apparent side effects. Plasma concentrations during oral administration were at the high end of the therapeutic range, indicating absorption in a nonmonogastric species. Further studies are warranted to determine optimal dosing in small ruminants.