[On the history of formation and characteristics of development of the chair of social hygiene, the first one in Russia].

The purpose of the study is to analyze changes occurred, against the background of social challenges, in functioning of the Chair of Social Hygiene since its establishment in 1922 at the Faculty of Medicine of the I Moscow State University to the present time at the N. A. Semashko Chair of Public Health and Health Care at the Sechenov University. The historical method was applied to analyze the documents from the Moscow Central State Archive, the N. A. Semashko Chair of Public Health and Health Care and published materials from eLibrary.ru and the Central Scientific Medical Library for 100-year period.

[Activity of N.A. Semashko during the evacuation of the 1st Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute to Ufa (1941-1942)].

An attempt is made to systematize the main directions of N.A. Semashko's activity during the evacuation of the 1st Moscow Order of Lenin Medical Institute (MOLMI) during the Great Patriotic War to Ufa (October 1941 - March 1942) is undertaken. The significance of its results for the Bashkir State Medical Institute (now Bashkir State Medical University) is evaluated. It is shown that the joint work of N.A. Semashko with the teaching staff of the 1st MOLMI and Bashkir medical institute improved the pedagogical and scientific qualification of teachers at Bashkir medical institute, improved the existing forms of teaching, scientific and educational work during the period of war and created new ones. Professor N.A. Semashko actively worked in several directions during complicated conditions of evacuation. Besides pedagogical and scientific activities, he was occupied with the training of scientific-pedagogical personnel, took part in advanced training of physicians and medical workers, organized educational work with the population, delivered brilliant lectures to the crowded halls. In addition, as the first People's Commissar of Health of the RSFSR, he helped the People's Commissariat of Health of the Bashkir ASSR in organizing the work of evacuation hospitals and rendering assistance to health care institutions located on the territory of the Bashkir ASSR.

[The statistics and public health in Russia (end of XIX - early XX centuries): foreign approaches in educational literature].

In Russia, since the end of XIX century the statistical method became the main method of cognition in public health (social hygiene). The article is devoted to the study of academic literature on theory of public health statistics in Russia and the USSR in the 1880s-1930s. The first experience in Russia of description of statistics in educational literature on hygiene is expounded in the lectures of F. F. Erisman (1887). In the 1920s, the German literature was used to compose Russian educational literature on social hygiene statistics. The English scientific tradition in statistics was reflected in the works of Yu. L. Pomorsky, compiled on the basis of the works of R. Fisher. In the 1920s and 1930s, complex mathematical and statistical methods were not claimed in social hygienic research in the USSR due to political attitudes.

Organización de los Servicios de Salud en Portugal a Principios del Siglo XX: el Caso de la Sífilis / Organization of the Health Services in Portugal in the Beginning of the 20th Century: The Syphilis’s Case

La lucha contra las enfermedades venéreas como la sífilis se viene dando desde el siglo XVI, desarrollándose significativamente en el siglo XIX, especialmente tras el armisticio de 1918. El gran impacto social sobre todo debido a las malformaciones que causaba la sífilis congénita, poco tiempo después de terminar la primera guerra mundial fue creada la Unión Internacional Contra el Peligro Venéreo [Fragmento de texto] (AU)

[S. A. Tomilin on the issue of placement of human personality and its health in social hygiene].

The article discusses the placement of personality and its health in early Soviet social hygiene. It is demonstrated that central position was assigned to analysis of integrated arrays of health statistical data of total population and its large groups. The individual health of personality as research object was shifted to periphery of interests of social hygienic science. On the example of works of S. A. Tomilin, the potential areas of enhancement of social hygienic comprehension of human health problematic are established.

[The social hygiene of labor].

Nowadays, the factors of labor conditions, expectations of workers about working place safety, quality of career development health integrity play an important role in distribution and exploitation of labor force. The social factors and factors of health preserving technologies gain even more importance for organization of working space. The international organizations more often fix increasing of traumatism, deterioration of quality of life of workers, including such crucial for development of labor market and society strata as the youth one. Hence it is a real threat of decreasing of human potential of nation. The article presents international estimates of understanding and calculation of main indices of labor conditions, quality of workplaces and integrity of health of workers. The problems of further investigation in this area are brought out. The characteristics of definition of the term "social hygiene of labor" are exposed as significant for describing and specifying characteristics of modern labor relations, changes in employee-employer relations for the purpose of improving work and employment conditions, as well as social protection of able-bodied population, preserving and promoting health of workers.

[The contribution of the N. A. Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health into development of science and public health].

The article is devoted to the history of the creation and activities of the N. A. Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health. On the basis of the analysis of archival materials and scientific works of the staff of the Institute, the main results of the Institute work for 75 years are presented. The contribution of the Institute to the development of science and health care in the USSR and the Russian Federation is investigated.

Assessing frontline HIV service provider efficiency using data envelopment analysis: a case study of Philippine social hygiene clinics (SHCs).

BACKGROUND: Globally, local and frontline HIV service delivery units have been deployed to halt the HIV epidemic. However, with the limited resources, there is a need to understand how these units can deliver their optimum outputs/outcomes efficiently given the inputs. This study aims to determine the efficiency of the social hygiene clinics (SHC) in the Philippines as well as to determine the association of the meta-predictor to the efficiencies. METHODS: In determining efficiency, we used the variables from two data sources namely the 2012 Philippine HIV Costing study and 2011 Integrated HIV Behavioral and Serologic Surveillance, as inputs and outputs, respectively. Various data management protocols and initial assumptions in data matching, imputation and variable selection, were used to create the final dataset with 9 SHCs. We used data envelopment analysis (DEA) to analyse the efficiency, while variations in efficiencies were analysed using Tobit regression with area-specific meta-predictors. RESULTS: There were potentially inefficient use of limited resources among sampled SHC in both aggregate and key populations. Tobit regression results indicated that income was positively associated with efficiency, while HIV prevalence was negatively associated with the efficiency variations among the SHCs. CONCLUSIONS: We were able to determine the inefficiently performing SHCs in the Philippines. Though currently inefficient, these SHCs may adjust their inputs and outputs to become efficient in the future. While there were indications of income and HIV prevalence to be associated with the efficiency variations, the results of this case study may only be limited in generalisability, thus further studies are warranted.

Degeneración y mejoramiento de la raza: ¿higiene social o eugenesia? Colombia, 1920-1930 / Degeneration and improvement of the race: social higiene or eugenics? Colombia, 1920-1930

Resumen Este artículo pretende discutir de qué manera ciertos saberes y prácticas orientados al "mejoramiento de la raza" colombiana entre 1920 y 1930 son similares o pueden localizarse en el marco de lo que ha sido definido por la historiografía como "movimiento eugenésico latinoamericano". El término de "higiene social" aparece en algunos textos médicos colombianos durante ese período para hablar del mejoramiento de una fracción de la población que se definía como "degenerada". Se trata de contribuir a la reflexión sobre la necesidad de repensar las estrategias del "mejoramiento de la raza" como problemas locales, heterogéneos y diversos.

Abstract This article discusses the similarities between certain knowledges and practices focused on "improving the race" in Colombia from 1920-1930, showing how they can be located within a framework defined by historiography as the "Latin American eugenic movement." The term "social hygiene" appears in some Colombian medical texts during this period to describe the improvement of a fraction of the population defined as "degenerate." This study contributes to discussion of the need to rethink "racial improvement" strategies as local, heterogeneous, diverse problems.

'Apostles of Continence': Doctors and the Doctrine of Sexual Necessity in Progressive-Era America.

In the first decades of the twentieth century, a group of doctors under the banner of the social hygiene movement set out on what seemed an improbable mission: to convince American men that they did not need sex. This was in part a response to venereal disease. Persuading young men to adopt the standard of sexual discipline demanded of women was the key to preserving the health of the nation from the ravages of syphilis and gonorrhoea. But their campaign ran up against the doctrine of male sexual necessity, a doctrine well established in medical thought and an article of faith for many patients. Initially, social hygienists succeeded in rallying much of the medical community. But this success was followed by a series of setbacks. Significant dissent remained within the profession. Even more alarmingly, behavioural studies proved that many men simply were not listening. The attempt to repudiate the doctrine of male sexual necessity showed the ambition of Progressive-era doctors, but also their powerlessness in the face of entrenched beliefs about the linkage in men between sex, health and success.

Santa Casa de Misericórdia e as políticas higienistas em Belém do Pará no final do século XIX / Santa Casa de Misericórdia and hygienist policies in Belém do Pará in the late nineteenth century

O artigo analisa a relação entre as políticas higienistas que vigoraram na cidade de Belém ao final do século XIX e a expansão das atividades da Santa Casa de Misericórdia do Pará. Considerada uma das primeiras instituições hospitalares da então Província do Grão-Pará, a Irmandade, além de seu hospital próprio, administrou diversos outros estabelecimentos de saúde na capital. O estudo de seu deslocamento físico permite o "desenho" de três núcleos da Saúde em Belém: Pioneiro, de Expansão e da Santa Casa, que reforçam os vetores de crescimento da cidade. A expansão de suas atividades se configura como ampliação da Misericórdia para atender os desvalidos e enfermos, que precede a instauração de um sistema de saúde pública no Pará.

The article analyzes the relationship between hygienist policies in effect in Belém in the late nineteenth century and the expansion of activities of the Santa Casa de Misericórdia do Pará. Considered one of the first hospital institutions in the former Grão-Pará Province, in addition to its own hospital, the Brotherhood administered several other health facilities in the capital, and the study of its physical displacement made it possible to "map" three health centers in Belém: Pioneer, Expansion and the Santa Casa, which reinforce the growth vectors of the city. The expansion of its activities is configured as the expansion of the Santa Casa de Misericórdia to serve the underprivileged and sick, preceding the establishment of a public health system in Pará.

The Life of Choe Ung-sok: With a Focus on His Design for and Role in the Health Care System Immediately after the Liberation / 의사학

Born in Pyongyang in 1914, Choe Ung-sok was a physician who lived through the Japanese colonial era (1910-1945), rule by the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK; 1945-1948), and national division (1948). Influenced by socialism and social hygiene/social medicine during his studies in Japan, he played the role of representing the socialist camp in the discussions related to the construction of a heath care system immediately following the Liberation (1945). His key arguments were: first, the nationalization of the medical system and the implementation of nationwide programs to eradicate diseases; second, the provision of free medical services through the expansion of social insurance; third, the reeducation of the medical personnel; fourth, the provision of social sciences education to the medical personnel and the reorganization of medicine into preventive medicine; fifth, the nationalization of pharmaceutics; sixth, the laborers' establishment of autonomous medical organs (affordable clinics, medical consumers' unions through cooperatives); and seventh, the reduction of work hours to 6-8 hours, technical improvement, respite from research, and guarantee of economic life for the medical personnel. Influenced by the medical systems of the Soviet Union and Japan, such arguments stood in opposition to the right wing's plan for the construction of a relatively passive health care system at the time but, in the end, failed to be realized in southern part of Korea under the USAMGIK. Subsequently, he defected to northern part of Korea and came to participate in the task of constructing North Korea's health care system. Choe's life and design for a health care system provide examples through which one can confirm the nature of social hygiene/social medicine both during the Japanese colonial era and before and after the Liberation and the contents of the design related to a health care system as held by the socialist faction. In addition, they show that, immediately after the Liberation, there existed a broad spectrum of imagination and arguments concerning the desirable health care system. Following the division of the Korean Peninsula, South Korea witnessed the instatement of a regime that established anti-communism as the state policy and the strong influence of the United States in politics, economy, and culture. The consequent frustration of Choe's design for a health care system and his defection to North Korea frustrated the creation of a National Heath Service (NHS) in South Korea, reinforced the tendency to view NHS and social insurance as "socialist" or "communist" methods, and led to the restriction of the scope of subsequent discussions related to health care system. In conclusion, the course of Choe's life and thought went beyond the life of an individual during a period in which diverse ideologies collided through the Japanese colonial era, Liberation, and national division and symbolically demonstrates one important path of the process of constructing a health care system on the Korean Peninsula.

Bodies for Empire: Biopolitics, Reproduction, and Sexual Knowledge in Late Colonial Korea / 의사학

This paper explores the history of the biomedical construction of women's bodies as social bodies in the formation of colonial modernity in Korea. To do so, I engage with Michel Foucault's concepts of governmentality and biopolitics and the postcolonial history of medicine that has critically revisited these Foucauldian notions. These offer critical insights into the modern calculation of population and the biomedical gaze on female bodies on the Korean Peninsula under Japan's colonial rule (1910-1945). Foucauldian reflections on governmentality and colonial medicine can also shed light on the role of biomedical physicians in the advancement of colonial biopolitics. Biomedical physicians-state and non-state employees and colonizers and colonized alike - served as key agents investigating, knowing, and managing, as well as proliferating a discourse about, women's bodies and reproduction during Japan's empire-building. In particular, this paper sheds light on the processes by which Korean women's bodies became the objects of intense scrutiny as part of an attempt to quantify, as well as maximize, the total population in late colonial Korea. In the aftermath of the establishment of the Manchurian puppet state in 1932, Japanese imperial and colonial states actively sought to mobilize Koreans as crucial human resources for the further penetration of Japan's imperial holdings into the Chinese continent. State and non-state medical doctors meticulously interrogated, recorded, and circulated knowledge about the sexual and conjugal practices and reproductive life of Korean women in the agricultural sector, for the purposes of measuring and increasing the size, health, and vitality of the colonial population. At the heart of such medical endeavors stood the Investigative Committee for Social Hygiene in Rural Korea and Japan-trained Korean medical students/physicians, including Ch'oe Ug-sok, who carried out a social hygiene study in the mid-1930s. Their study illuminates the ways in which Korean women's bodies entered the modern domain of scientific knowledge at the intersection of Japan's imperialism, colonial governmentality, and biomedicine. A critical case study of the Investigative Committee's study and Ch'oe can set the stage for clarifying the vestiges as well as the reformulation of knowledge, ideas, institutions, and activities of colonial biopolitics in the divided Koreas.

El caso de la 'mala vida', peligrosidad y prevención de conductas marginales en Revista de Criminología, Psiquiatría, Medicina Legal y Ciencias Afines, en Buenos Aires, 1914-1923 / The case of the 'lowlife': perceptions of danger and the prevention of disreputable behaviors in the Revista de Criminología, Psiquiatría, Medicina Legal y Ciencias Afines in Buenos Aires, 1914-1923

Analizamos la construcción de la noción de ‘mala vida’ en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, en la Revista de Criminología, Psiquiatría y Medicina Legal, entre 1914 y 1923. Nos dedicaremos a analizar la ‘mala vida’, entendiendo por tal aquellas conductas ubicadas en una zona fronteriza entre el crimen y la locura, a partir de la cuestión de la prevención y la peligrosidad. La primera forma de analizar la ‘mala vida’ se refiere a proyectos de instituciones ligados a la eugenesia para el encierro preventivo de peligrosos, ‘alcoholistas’ y vagabundos. La segunda, a la identificación, en términos morales y físicos, que puede ser vinculada a la confección de proyectos de intervención para los considerados ‘malvivientes’, que pudieran potencialmente dañar de algún modo al cuerpo social.

We analyze the construction of the notion of the ‘lowlife’ in the city of Buenos Aires in the Revista de Criminología, Psiquiatría y Medicina Legal, from 1914-1923. We shall analyze the notion of ‘lowlife’, meaning behaviors situated in a border zone between crime and madness, from the point of view of prevention and perception of danger. The first way of analyzing the ‘lowlife’ examines institutional projects that were related to eugenics and that advocated preventive detention of dangerous people, ‘alcoholists’ and vagrants. The second involves identifying in moral and physical terms the kind of people who were targeted in the creation of intervention projects for those considered to be ‘lowlifes’, who could potentially damage the fabric of society in some way.

Different conceptions of mental illness: consequences for the association with patients.

Whenever partial knowledge is considered absolute and turned into ideological and dogmatic conceptions, the risk increases that the conditions for the people involved might become dangerous. This will be illustrated by casuistic examples of consequences of one-sided psychiatric conceptions such as social, biological, and psychological ideas about the treatment and care of the mentally ill. Present perspectives of an integrative model, i.e., an advanced bio-psycho-social conception about evidence-based characteristics on the social, psychological, and molecular-genetic level, require that all of these dimensions should be considered in order to personalize and thereby improve the care and treatment of the mentally ill.

Problems and tentative solutions in the control of gonorrhea in the community

Hospitality girls reporting at the Balibago Social Hygiene Clinic, Angeles City between November 1978 and February 1979 for their regular VD check-up were studied. Similarly, hospitality girls seen at the Social Hygiene Clinics at Makati, Pasay City, and Para$aque, Metro Manila were studied from July to November 1978 to compare the prevalence rate of gonococcal infection

The Development of German Social Medicine in the Nineteenth Century / 의사학

In his influential treatise System einer vollstandigen medizinischen Polizey, Johann Peter Frank(1745-1821) made significant contributions to the establishment of the concept of medical police, which has been understood as the forerunner of social medicine. Cameralism, the German version of mercantilism, became the very basis on which Frank and other German writers developed the framework of medical police. 'Medical reform' was the catchword of German medical men in the 1840s. The medical reform movement of 1848 was partially caused by a deep political, economic, and social crisis. Although Industrial Revolution began in Germany later than in England and France during the first half of the nineteenth century, by 1848 the formation of German industrial working-class made medical reformers recognize the causal relationships between social and health problems. The outstanding figures in the German medical reform movement of this period were Rudolf Virchow(1821-1902), Solomon Neumann and Rudolf Leubuscher. In his famous Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia, Virchow proposed several radical measures that could be used against the epidemic: the absolute separation of the schools from the church, the establishment of self-government in the state and community, unlimited democracy, road building, and the improvement of agriculture and horticulture. The progressive German medical reformers of the 1840s held to several principles through their action for the enhancement of public hygiene: (1) the health of the people is a matter of direct social concern, (2) social and economic conditions have an important effect on health and disease, (3) steps taken to promote health and to combat disease must be social as well as medical. The 1848 Revolution was defeated. To most Germans after 1870s, the 1848 movement was something from a strange past. The German intellectuals and the middle class accepted social policy of Bismarck. As Bismarck launched national health insurance in 1883, more emphasis in social medicine was given on better health care rather than on social hygiene. The ideologically-oriented social medicine of 1848 was transformed into more administrative one and began to include the insurance concept in health care.

The Development of German Social Medicine in the Nineteenth Century / 의사학

In his influential treatise System einer vollstandigen medizinischen Polizey, Johann Peter Frank(1745-1821) made significant contributions to the establishment of the concept of medical police, which has been understood as the forerunner of social medicine. Cameralism, the German version of mercantilism, became the very basis on which Frank and other German writers developed the framework of medical police. 'Medical reform' was the catchword of German medical men in the 1840s. The medical reform movement of 1848 was partially caused by a deep political, economic, and social crisis. Although Industrial Revolution began in Germany later than in England and France during the first half of the nineteenth century, by 1848 the formation of German industrial working-class made medical reformers recognize the causal relationships between social and health problems. The outstanding figures in the German medical reform movement of this period were Rudolf Virchow(1821-1902), Solomon Neumann and Rudolf Leubuscher. In his famous Report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia, Virchow proposed several radical measures that could be used against the epidemic: the absolute separation of the schools from the church, the establishment of self-government in the state and community, unlimited democracy, road building, and the improvement of agriculture and horticulture. The progressive German medical reformers of the 1840s held to several principles through their action for the enhancement of public hygiene: (1) the health of the people is a matter of direct social concern, (2) social and economic conditions have an important effect on health and disease, (3) steps taken to promote health and to combat disease must be social as well as medical. The 1848 Revolution was defeated. To most Germans after 1870s, the 1848 movement was something from a strange past. The German intellectuals and the middle class accepted social policy of Bismarck. As Bismarck launched national health insurance in 1883, more emphasis in social medicine was given on better health care rather than on social hygiene. The ideologically-oriented social medicine of 1848 was transformed into more administrative one and began to include the insurance concept in health care.