Working Hours, Shift, and Remote Work by Industry and Occupation in U.S. Full-time Workers.

BACKGROUND: This study examines working hours, shift work, and remote work patterns by occupation and industry among U.S. full-time workers, along with the association between working and sleeping hours. METHODS: Utilizing data from 2011 to 2020 American Time Use Survey, this national household survey examines how individuals aged 15 years or older in the United States spend their time within a 24-hour period. FINDINGS: In 2011 to 2019, U.S. full-time workers averaged 8.1 hours of work and 7.8 hours spent sleep on workdays, increasing to 9.6 hours on non-workdays. Among all occupations, Emergency medical technicians and paramedics had the longest average working hours (10.4 hours). Protective services occupations had the highest percentage (41.7%) of workers reporting often working shifts other than daytime. Among all industries, truck transportation industry had the longest average working hours (9.2). Food services and drinking places industries had the highest percentage (28.6%) of workers reporting often working shifts other than daytime. Working hours showed a negative association with sleeping hours. In 2020, 34.0% of full-time workers reported remote work due to COVID-19, with the largest percentage (72.3%) occurring in business and financial operations. CONCLUSIONS: The study findings offer essential benchmarks for comparing working hours and schedules across diverse occupations and industries. These insights empower occupational health practitioners to advocate for prevention measures, addressing health concerns arising from prolonged working hours and shift work.

Corrigendum: Hard work, long hours, and Singaporean young adults' health-A qualitative study.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1082581.].

A fast-flexible strategy based approach to solving employee scheduling problem considering soft work time.

Employee scheduling aims to assign employees to shifts to satisfy daily workload and constraints. Some employee scheduling problems and their variants have been proven NP-hard, and a series of works have been done. However, the existing algorithms consider the fixed work time, which may cause plenty of overstaffing and understaffing phenomenons. Hence, this paper proposes a fast-flexible strategy based approach (FFS) to solve it. FFS introduces the idea of soft work time, which allows the work time of employees can be adjusted in a range. Based on this, we set the flextime strategy to decide the specific work time of each employee every day. Besides, FFS adopts a pairwise-allocated strategy and proficiency average matrix to boost its efficiency and effectiveness. Finally, the extensive experimental evaluation shows that FFS is more effective and efficient than the baselines for solving the employee scheduling problem considering soft work time.

Effect of nutritional guidance on employee work ability, work well-being and quality of life (RAVI trial): Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The minority of working-age Finns eat according to the national and Nordic nutritional guidelines and increasing numbers of health problems affect the Finnish workforce. Coincidently recruiting new workers in the more rural areas of Finland, such as Satakunta, has been problematic. To optimize the use of the existing workforce, health promotion interventions focusing on nutrition have been suggested to improve the health and well-being of the current working age Finns. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The aim of this RCT study is to assess the effectiveness of a 12-month multifactorial nutritional guidance intervention to improve work ability (performance), work well-being, health-related quality of life, work productivity, sickness absence, dietary intake and eating habits. In total, six small or medium-sized companies and their employees (n = 170) from the Satakunta region will be recruited. Companies will be randomized 1:1 to a 12-month multifactorial nutritional guidance intervention group (INT) or a control group (CG). Comprehensive measurements are taken before randomization (baseline) and at the end of the 12-month study period. Primary outcomes (work ability, work well-being and health-related quality of life) are measured with Work Ability Index, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale short questionnaire and EQ-5D. Dietary intake and eating habits are measured with 3-day food records and Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ). DISCUSSION: This study will provide nationally important data on how workplace nutrition guidance affects work-related outcomes, quality of life, and nutritional and overall health status among working age Finns.

Compensatory Interactions between Corneal and Internal Astigmatism despite Lifestyle Changes.

This study explores whether children's refractive errors and visual behaviors reverted to pre-COVID-19 levels a year after normal schooling resumed in Hong Kong as well as the impact of corneal and internal astigmatism on refractive astigmatism development. Vision survey data and questionnaire results collected in 2022 (n = 119) and 2020 (n = 173) were compared. Cross-sectional data showed similar proportions of astigmatism (cylindrical power ≥ 0.75 D) in the 2020 (49.1%) and 2022 cohorts (55.5%). Despite a 0.28 D increase in corneal astigmatism, a compensatory 0.24 D increase in internal astigmatism of opposite direction kept refractive astigmatism relatively stable. The questionnaire data showed that children spent an additional 0.5 h/day outdoors on weekends post-resumption of normal schooling but engaged in more near-work activities, especially non-screen near-work, by approximately 1 h/day on both weekdays and weekends. These findings were supported by longitudinal data from 72 children who participated in both surveys. This study highlights the significant role of corneal and internal astigmatism in refractive astigmatism changes. Despite the return to in-person classes, children's total near-work time increased and astigmatism remained high. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive strategies to reduce the high environmental risks for refractive error development in children.

Association between long working hours and diet quality and patterns: A latent profile analysis of a nationally representative sample of Korean workers.

BACKGROUND: Long working hours are associated with cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. This study investigated the relationship between the working hours and dietary qualities and patterns in Korean workers. METHODS: Data from 24,523 workers were extracted from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2013-2021. The Korean Healthy Eating Index (KHEI), which ranges from 0 to 100, with a higher score indicating greater adherence to Korean dietary guidelines and superior dietary quality, was used for dietary assessment. We identified dietary patterns and classified workers using latent profile analysis. Logistic regressions were used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: Five distinct dietary patterns emerged: healthy diet (24.8%), low-vegetable diet (14.0%), average diet (7.8%), low-fruit diet (31.4%), and poor diet (22.0%). The mean KHEI score was 60.8, with the highest score observed in the healthy diet pattern (71.3) and the lowest, in the poor diet pattern (50.0). Compared with working 35-40 h/week, working ≥55 h/week was negatively associated with KHEI scores (ß: -1.08; 95% CI: -1.67, -0.49). Those working ≥55 h/week were less likely to have a healthy diet pattern (OR: 0.81; 95% CI: 0.72, 0.91) and more likely to have a low-fruit diet (OR: 1.36; 95% CI: 1.20, 1.55) or poor diet pattern (OR: 1.23; 95% CI: 1.05, 1.43) compared with those working 35-40 h/week. CONCLUSION: Long working hours are associated with undesirable dietary quality and patterns. Policy interventions aimed at enhancing dietary quality are needed to alleviate the health burdens associated with long working hours.

Association between long working hours and engagement in preventive healthcare services in Korean workers: Findings from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

BACKGROUND: Engagement in preventive healthcare services is crucial for preventing diseases. We explored how working hours are associated with engagement in preventive healthcare services, with a focus on gender differences. METHODS: This cross-sectional study used data from the 2007-2012 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The dependent variable was engagement in each of the five preventive healthcare services (health check-ups, influenza vaccination, and stomach, breast, and cervical cancer screenings). We estimated the prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using robust Poisson regression. RESULTS: The study analyzed 19,819 workers (9119 women). The adjusted PRs (95% CI) of the association between working ≥55 h per week and engagement in preventive healthcare services among men were 0.95 (0.90-1.00) for health check-ups, 0.86 (0.77-0.96) for influenza vaccination, and 0.95 (0.87-1.03) for stomach cancer screening compared to working 35-40 h per week. Among women, the adjusted PRs (95% CI) of the association between working ≥55 h per week and engagement in preventive healthcare services were 0.84 (0.78-0.91) for health check-ups, 0.82 (0.73-0.92) for influenza vaccination, and 0.88 (0.80-0.97) for stomach, 0.85 (0.78-0.94) for breast, and 0.82 (0.74-0.91) for cervical cancer screenings. CONCLUSION: Long working hours were negatively associated with engagement in preventive healthcare services, and the association was pronounced among female workers. Efforts to promote preventive healthcare participation among individuals with long working hours are necessary, and it is essential to consider the unique vulnerabilities of women when developing such policies.

Effect of long working hours on psychological distress among young workers in different types of occupation.

BACKGROUND: We investigated how the association between long working hours and psychological distress varies across different employment and occupation types in young workers. METHODS: Examining a nationally representative sample of 7246 Korean workers (3621 women) aged 15 to 40, we analyzed 23,492 observations spanning from 2016 to 2020. Psychological distress was measured using the Brief Encounter Psychosocial Instrument. We employed a generalized estimating equation to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: Of the total observations, 5.2% worked <35 h/week, 52.9% worked 35-40 h/week, 23.5% worked 41-48 h/week, 10.3% worked 49-54 h/week, and 8.2% worked ≥55 h/week. The OR (95% CI) of the association between long working hours and psychological distress was 1.38 (1.11-1.72) for <35 h/week, 1.47 (1.32-1.65) for 41-48 h/week, 1.74 (1.49-2.04) for 49-54 h/week, and 2.11 (1.75-2.55) for ≥55 h/week compared to 35-40 h/week. The OR (95% CI) of the association between working ≥55 h/week and psychological distress was significantly higher among wage workers (OR [95% CI]: 2.37 [1.94-2.89]) compared to self-employed workers (OR [95% CI]: 0.84 [0.52-1.36]). Additionally, the OR (95% CI) of the association between working ≥55 h/week and psychological distress was significantly higher among white-collar workers (OR [95% CI]: 3.24 [2.54-4.13]) compared to service/sales workers (OR [95% CI]: 1.22 [0.86-1.72]) or blue-collar workers (OR [95% CI]: 1.71 [1.10-2.67]). No clear gender differences were observed. CONCLUSION: Psychological distress caused by long working hours can be pronounced among white-collar and wage workers.

Has Covid-19 Weakened Workplace Socialization? Associating Outcomes of Excessive Work Time With the Entrepreneurial Behavior of Employees.

The Covid outbreak and the resulting work processes have led to excessive work pressure requirements for a large majority of the employees due to continuous requirements for adaptation to changing work processes. However, outcomes of new work dynamics on employees' behavioral and attitudinal changes have been insufficiently examined during and after the Covid period. Hence, this empirical research has used the social identity theory to conceptualize and test the relationship between excessive work time and the entrepreneurial behavior of employees. Moreover, the mediating role of socialization tactics and creative self-efficacy, as well as the moderating role of resilience are also examined in the above relationship for unveiling the role of crucial intervening and conditional factors in individualized change experiences. Based on the analysis of data collected from managerial-level employees through the use of structural equation modeling, the empirical results have suggested a negative impact of excessive work time on the entrepreneurial behavior of employees. Also, the intervening role of formal socialization and creative self-efficacy were found to be significant in this relationship, thus suggesting the crucial direct as well as indirect relationships. Using the findings, implications as well as future research directions are discussed towards the end of the article.

The role of work-family conflict in the association between long working hours and workers' sleep disturbance and burnout: results from the sixth Korean Working Conditions Survey.

BACKGROUND: The effect of long working hours on mental health has drawn great social attention in recent years. AIMS: We investigated how work-family conflict mediates the associations between long working hours and sleep disturbance and burnout. METHOD: We included 19 159 individuals from a nationally representative sample of workers in South Korea. We decomposed the total effect into a direct effect (long working hours → sleep disturbance or burnout) and an indirect effect (long working hours → work-family conflict → sleep disturbance or burnout). Logistic mediation models were used. RESULTS: Long working hours were associated with increased risks of work-family conflict, sleep disturbance and burnout. The longer the working hours, the stronger the direct and indirect effects. The odds ratios of the direct effects of long working hours on sleep disturbance were 1.64 (95% CI 1.39-1.95) for 49-54 h/week and 1.66 (95% CI 1.37-2.01) for ≥55 h/week; those of the indirect effects were 1.16 (95% CI 1.12-1.21) for 49-54 h/week and 1.27 (95% CI 1.21-1.33) for ≥ 55 h/week. Similarly, odds ratios of the direct effects of long working hours on burnout were 1.18 (95% CI 1.05-1.33) for 49-54 h/week and 1.20 (95% CI 1.04-1.37) for ≥55 h/week; those of the indirect effects were 1.11 (95% CI 1.09-1.15) for 49-54 h/week and 1.20 (95% CI 1.16-1.24) for ≥55 h/week. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that work-family conflict mediates the associations between long working hours and sleep disturbance and burnout. Longitudinal studies should be followed to confirm the causal relationship.

Work Time Control and Job Crafting as Predictors of Work Method Control Among Health Workers.

Introduction: Nigerian dilapidated health sector is confronted with unprecedented work method control challenges caused by the ongoing COVID-19 crisis, which has changed the world of work, health, and well-being attainment. The COVID-19 pandemic has challenged work method control employed by the Nigerian health sector as they seek to mobilize leftover resources from embezzlement required to accomplish desired tasks and, as a result, altered the work methods, job descriptions, characteristics, and demands the attainment of organizational and personal goals. Objective: Based on Job Demands-Resources Theory (JD-R) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the researchers' principal objective was to investigate the moderating role of job crafting in the relationship between work time control and work method control among Nigerian health workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: The participants for this study comprised (220) health employees sampled through the purposive and convenient method. Three instruments, Breaugh's Work Autonomy Scale, Work Time Control Scale, and Job Crafting Questionnaire, were used for data collection, and hierarchical multiple regression was employed for data analysis. Results: Results of this study showed that work time control and job crafting were positively associated with work method control of Nigerian health workers. Job crafting moderated the relationship between work time control and work method control. This research deepened the knowledge of work method control while integrating work time control, and job crafting, with other health and work challenges of health workers in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, COVID-19 has turned neglected Nigerian health workers into heroes as their work time control and job crafting helped manage the pandemic despite the poor infrastructure, corruption, bigotry, and ethnocentrism. Conclusion: During pandemics, the work method must be understood and used with work time and job crafting to improve patient recovery, health workers' well-being, the nation, and the universe.

Working hours and the onset of suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms: A 10-year nationwide longitudinal study in South Korea (2012-2022).

Long working hours are associated with adverse health outcomes. We investigated the association between working hours and suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms. We analyzed a nationally representative sample of 11,116 Korean workers, comprising 64,661 observations from 2012 to 2022, to investigate how working hours were associated with mental health problems. To account for repeated measurements in each participant, we employed a generalized estimating equation to estimate risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Of the total observations, 13.1% reported working ≥55 h/week. The RR (95% CI) of the association between long working hours and onset of suicidal ideation in the subsequent year was 1.20 (0.95-1.53) for 41-48 h, 1.35 (1.02-1.78) for 49-54 h, and 1.56 (1.23-1.98) for ≥55 h/week, compared to 35-40 h/week. The RR (95% CI) of the association between long working hours and onset of depressive symptoms in the subsequent year was 1.19 (1.07-1.34) for 41-48 h, 1.11 (0.97-1.28) for 49-54 h, and 1.24 (1.10-1.40) for ≥55 h per week, compared to 35-40 h/week. Those working fewer than 35 h/week also had an increased risk of suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms. Policy interventions are needed to reduce excess working hours and protect workers' mental health.

Hard work, long hours, and Singaporean young adults' health-A qualitative study.

Background: As young adults in their 20s to 30s transitioning toward new careers and independence, their dietary and physical activity practices often change, increasing their risk of weight gain. This study explored the ways that Singaporean young adults perceived and experienced the interaction between their working hours, work, and health practices. Methods: This research used semi-structured interviews to explore the perspectives and experiences of participants. Purposive and snowball sampling was used to recruit 15 men and 18 women, aged 23 to 36, who had worked full-time at their respective jobs in Singapore for at least 1 year. An inductive and deductive thematic analysis approach was employed. Results: Young working adults' commitment to work was driven by a hard-working culture, a desire to attain better jobs and remuneration, and to fulfill cultural expectations to support their multi-generation families. Their non-work time was largely spent recuperating from work by socializing over food and in sedentary activities. Conclusion: For young working adults, long work hours are normalized, even though they are a barrier to healthy diets and physical activity. Existing social and institutional norms support a culture that values commitment to work and encourages young adults to devote long hours to building a sound financial future and achieving personal and cultural aspirations. These findings have implications for long-term population health and should be considered in health promotion activities targeting young adults and barriers.

Working from home, work-time control and mental health: Results from the Brazilian longitudinal study of adult health (ELSA-Brasil).

This cross-sectional study investigated the association between work-time control (WTC), independently and in combination with hours worked (HW), and four mental health outcomes among 2,318 participants of the Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil) who worked from home during the COVID-19 pandemic. WTC was assessed by the WTC Scale, and mental health outcomes included depression, anxiety, stress (measured by the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale, DASS-21), and self-rated mental health. Logistic regression models were used to determine odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Among women, long HW were associated with stress (OR = 1.56; 95% CI = 1.11-2.20) and poor self-rated mental health (OR = 1.64; 95% CI = 1.13-2.38), whereas they were protective against anxiety among men (OR = 0.59; 95% CI = 0.37-0.93). In both sexes, weak WTC was associated with all mental health outcomes. Among women, the long HW/weak WTC combination was associated with all mental health outcomes, and short HW/weak WTC was associated with anxiety and stress. Among men, long HW/strong WTC was protective against depression and stress, while short HW/strong WTC and short HW/weak WTC was associated with all mental health outcomes. In both sexes, weak WTC, independently and in combination with HW, was associated with all mental health outcomes. WTC can improve working conditions, protect against mental distress, and fosterwork-life balance for those who work from home.

Road to Better Work-Life Balance? Lean Redesigns and Daily Work Time among Primary Care Physicians.

PURPOSE: To assess the impact of Lean primary care redesigns on the amount of time that physicians spent working each day. METHODS: This observational study was based on 92 million time-stamped Epic® EHR access logs captured among 317 primary care physicians in a large ambulatory care delivery system. Seventeen clinic facilities housing 46 primary care departments were included for study. We conducted interrupted time series analysis to monitor changes in physician work patterns over 6 years. Key measures included total daily work time; time spent on "desktop medicine" outside the exam room; time spent with patients during office visits; time still working after clinic, i.e., after seeing the last patient each day; and remote work time. RESULTS: The amount of time that physicians spent on desktop EHR activities throughout the day, including after clinic hours, decreased by 10.9% (95% CI: -22.2, -2.03) and 8.3% (95% CI: -13.8, -2.12), respectively, during the first year of Lean implementation. Total daily work hours among physicians, which included both desktop activity and time in office visits, decreased by 20% (95% CI: -29.2, -9.60) by the third year of Lean implementation. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that Lean redesign may be associated with time savings for primary care physicians. However, since this was an observational analysis, further study is warranted (e.g., randomized trial) -to determine the impact of Lean interventions on physician work experiences.

[Implementation of the new collective agreement in 2021 in urological clinics : Expectations and reality]. / Umsetzung des neuen Tarifvertrags ab 2021 in urologischen Kliniken : Wunsch und Wirklichkeit.

The amendment to the collective agreement is intended to significantly improve the working conditions of physicians and includes longer-term duty scheduling, work on a maximum of two weekends per month, less overtime. Smaller hospitals often have problems implementing these requirements and have to make compromises. At least the overtime is now better paid-overall, an improvement in working conditions can only be achieved by increasing the number of staff, then better and more intensive training is also possible.

Association between Near Work Time and Depression among Workers in South Korea.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between near work time and depression. METHODS: Data of 1,551 workers aged 19-49 years from the sixth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were examined. The Patient Health Questionaire-9 scores were used to screen for depression. Participants who scored a total of 10 or above, which is suggestive of the presence of depression, were classified as the depression group; the rest were classified as normal. The correlation between daily near work time and depression was analyzed using multivariate logistic analysis after adjusting for other sociodemographic and health behavior-related variables. RESULTS: Multivariate logistic analysis found that workers with 3 or more hours of near work were more likely to report depression compared to the reference group who had 2 or fewer hours per day of near work (adjusted odds ratio, 2.471; 95% confidence interval, 1.062-5.747). CONCLUSION: Longer near work time was associated with depression among South Korea's workers. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce near work time to prevent depression.

How do nurses spend their time? A time and motion analysis of nursing activities in an internal medicine unit.

AIM: To describe the nature and duration of nursing activities and how much time registered nurses allocate to the different dimensions of their scope of practice in a Swiss university hospital internal medicine ward. DESIGN: A single-centre observational descriptive study. METHOD: Using a time and motion study, two researchers shadowed healthcare workers (N = 21) during 46 complete work shifts in 2018. They recorded each activity observed in real time using a tablet computer with a pre-registered list of 42 activities classified into 13 dimensions. RESULTS: A total of 507.5 work hours were observed. Less than one third of registered nurses' work time was spent with patients. They allocated the most time to the dimensions of 'communication and care coordination' and 'care planning', whereas 'optimizing the quality and safety of care', 'integrating and supervising staff' and 'client education' were allocated the least time. CONCLUSION: This study provided a reliable description of nurses' time use at work. It highlighted suboptimal use of the full scope of nursing practice. IMPACT: Both work organization and culture should be reconsidered to promote better use of nursing skills. Practice optimization should focus on the following three main areas: (1) greater involvement of registered nurses in building relationships and directly caring for patients and their families; (2) better use of registered nurses' skills in the activities required of their proper roles, including nursing clinical assessments and patient education and (3) more systematically updating registered nurses' knowledge.

Economic Evaluation of an Extended Telehealth Worksite Exercise Intervention to Reduce Lost Work Time from Low Back Pain in Career Firefighters.

Purpose Low back pain (LBP) is a leading cause of lost work time (LWT) in firefighters and is related to poor muscle endurance. Although exercise can improve muscle endurance, it must be continued to sustain benefits, and it is unknown if it can reduce LWT. This study conducted an economic evaluation of an extended worksite exercise intervention in career firefighters. Methods A randomized controlled trial allocated 264 firefighters to telehealth with remote instruction ("telehealth"), direct exercise supervision ("direct"), or brief education ("control"). The telehealth and direct groups performed worksite exercises twice weekly for 12 months. Outcomes included quality adjusted life years, LWT from LBP (24-h shifts), costs of LWT from LBP, and net monetary benefits. Results A total of 216 firefighters were included in the economic analysis (telehealth n = 71, direct n = 75, control n = 70). Sixteen experienced LWT from LBP (telehealth n = 4, direct n = 4, control n = 8). The mean number of 24-h shifts lost from LBP were 0.05 (telehealth), 0.28 (direct), and 0.43 (control). Mean study intervention costs per participant were $1984 (telehealth), $5269 (direct), and $384 (control). Net monetary benefit was $3573 for telehealth vs. direct, - $1113 for telehealth vs. control, and - $4686 for direct vs. control. Conclusions Worksite exercise reduced LWT from LBP in firefighters. Telehealth was less costly and more effective at reducing LWT from LBP than direct exercise supervision. If the costs of telehealth were further reduced, a positive net monetary benefit might also be achieved when compared to no intervention.Clinical trial registration: (clinicaltrials.gov): NCT02362243.

Sleep among primary care physicians-Association with overtime, night duties and strategies to counteract poor sleep quality.

Physicians belong to the risk group for sleep disorders as a result of work related stress, excessive working time, large amount of on-call duties and shift work. Poor sleep quality of healthcare providers threatens not only their safety, but also the safety of their patients. This study examines if there are any differences in how working either long hours or at night duties relates to self-reported sleep time, sleep quality and daytime sleepiness in primary care physicians. We analyzed data from a survey research of 807 participants. Respondents were divided into four groups based on their reported work hours per week and number of nights on duty per month. Overtime was associated with shorter sleep time and worse subjective sleep quality even when compared with that of participants who work on night duties. All investigated groups of participants reported short sleep latencies which suggests that sleep debt is a common problem in this population. Surprisingly in the case of poor sleep quality participants rarely used recommended methods like regular physical activity or specialist advice. The most frequently reported answer was that they do nothing to improve sleep and every third participants uses hypnotics to do that. These results suggest that primary care physicians despite being at high risk for sleep disorders due to working overtime and at night, pay less attention to their sleep quality and do not use recommended strategies to improve it.