Structure-Activity Relationships of Antiplasmodial Pantothenamide Analogues Reveal a New Way by Which Triazoles Mimic Amide Bonds.

Pantothenamides are potent growth inhibitors of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Their clinical use is, however, hindered due to the ubiquitous presence of pantetheinases in human serum, which rapidly degrade pantothenamides into pantothenate and the corresponding amine. We previously reported that replacement of the labile amide bond with a triazole ring not only imparts stability toward pantetheinases, but also improves activity against P. falciparum. A small library of new triazole derivatives was synthesized, and their use in establishing structure-activity relationships relevant to antiplasmodial activity of this family of compounds is discussed herein. Overall it was observed that 1,4-substitution on the triazole ring and use of an unbranched, one-carbon linker between the pantoyl group and the triazole are optimal for inhibition of intraerythrocytic P. falciparum growth. Our results imply that the triazole ring may mimic the amide bond with an orientation different from what was previously suggested for this amide bioisostere.

Structure-activity analysis of CJ-15,801 analogues that interact with Plasmodium falciparum pantothenate kinase and inhibit parasite proliferation.

Survival of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is dependent on pantothenate (vitamin B5), a precursor of the fundamental enzyme cofactor coenzyme A. CJ-15,801, an enamide analogue of pantothenate isolated from the fungus Seimatosporium sp. CL28611, was previously shown to inhibit P. falciparum proliferation in vitro by targeting pantothenate utilization. To inform the design of next generation analogues, we set out to synthesize and test a series of synthetic enamide-bearing pantothenate analogues. We demonstrate that conservation of the R-pantoyl moiety and the trans-substituted double bond of CJ-15,801 is important for the selective, on-target antiplasmodial effect, while replacement of the carboxyl group is permitted, and, in one case, favored. Additionally, we show that the antiplasmodial potency of CJ-15,801 analogues that retain the R-pantoyl and trans-substituted enamide moieties correlates with inhibition of P. falciparum pantothenate kinase (PfPanK)-catalyzed pantothenate phosphorylation, implicating the interaction with PfPanK as a key determinant of antiplasmodial activity.

Correction of a genetic deficiency in pantothenate kinase 1 using phosphopantothenate replacement therapy.

Coenzyme A (CoA) is a ubiquitous cofactor involved in numerous essential biochemical transformations, and along with its thioesters is a key regulator of intermediary metabolism. Pantothenate (vitamin B5) phosphorylation by pantothenate kinase (PanK) is thought to control the rate of CoA production. Pantothenate kinase associated neurodegeneration is a hereditary disease that arises from mutations that inactivate the human PANK2 gene. Aryl phosphoramidate phosphopantothenate derivatives were prepared to test the feasibility of using phosphopantothenate replacement therapy to bypass the genetic deficiency in the Pank1(-/-) mouse model. The efficacies of candidate compounds were first compared by measuring the ability to increase CoA levels in Pank1(-/-) mouse embryo fibroblasts. Administration of selected candidate compounds to Pank1(-/-) mice corrected their deficiency in hepatic CoA. The PanK bypass was confirmed by the incorporation of intact phosphopantothenate into CoA using triple-isotopically labeled compound. These results provide strong support for PanK as a master regulator of intracellular CoA and illustrate the feasibility of employing PanK bypass therapy to restore CoA levels in genetically deficient mice.

Chemoenzymatic synthesis of vitamin B5-intermediate (R)-pantolactone via combined asymmetric organo- and biocatalysis.

The combination of an asymmetric organocatalytic aldol reaction with a subsequent biotransformation toward a "one-pot-like" process for the synthesis of (R)-pantolactone, which to date is industrially produced by a resolution process, is demonstrated. This process consists of an initial aldol reaction catalyzed by readily available l-histidine followed by biotransformation of the aldol adduct by an alcohol dehydrogenase without the need for intermediate isolation. Employing the industrially attractive starting material isobutanal, a chemoenzymatic three-step process without intermediate purification is established allowing the synthesis of (R)-pantolactone in an overall yield of 55% (three steps) and high enantiomeric excess of 95%.

Stereochemical modification of geminal dialkyl substituents on pantothenamides alters antimicrobial activity.

Pantothenamides are N-substituted pantothenate derivatives which are known to exert antimicrobial activity through interference with coenzyme A (CoA) biosynthesis or downstream CoA-utilizing proteins. A previous report has shown that replacement of the ProR methyl group of the benchmark N-pentylpantothenamide with an allyl group (R-anti configuration) yielded one of the most potent antibacterial pantothenamides reported so far (MIC of 3.2 µM for both sensitive and resistant Staphylococcus aureus). We describe herein a synthetic route for accessing the corresponding R-syn diastereomer using a key diastereoselective reduction with Baker's yeast, and report on the scope of this reaction for modified systems. Interestingly, whilst the R-anti diastereomer is the only one to show antibacterial activity, the R-syn isomer proved to be significantly more potent against the malaria parasite (IC50 of 2.4±0.2 µM). Our research underlines the striking influence that stereochemistry has on the biological activity of pantothenamides, and may find utility in the study of various CoA-utilizing systems.

High specificity in response of the sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter to derivatives of pantothenic acid.

Essential nutrients are attractive targets for the transport of biologically active agents across cell membranes, since many are substrates for active cellular importation pathways. The sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (SMVT) is among the best characterized of these, and biotin derivatives have been its most popular targets. We have surveyed 45 derivatives of pantothenic acid, another substrate of SMVT, long known as a competitive inhibitor of biotin transport. Variations of the ß-alanyl fragment of pantothenate were uniformly rejected by the transporter, including derivatives with very similar steric and acidic characteristics to the natural substrate. The secondary hydroxyl of the 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-propanediol (pantoyl) fragment was the only position at which potential linkers could be attached while retaining activity as an inhibitor of biotin uptake and a substrate for sodium-dependent transport. However, triazole conjugates to several drug-like cargo motifs were not accepted as substrates by human SMVT in cell culture. Two compounds were observed which did not inhibit biotin uptake but were themselves transported in a sodium-dependent fashion, suggesting more complex behavior than expected. These studies represent the most extensive examination to date of pantothenate as an anchor for SMVT-mediated drug delivery, showing that this route requires further investigation before being judged promising.

One hundred years of vitamins-a success story of the natural sciences.

The discovery of vitamins as essential factors in the diet was a scientific breakthrough that changed the world. Diseases such as scurvy, rickets, beriberi, and pellagra were recognized to be curable with an adequate diet. These diseases had been prevalent for thousands of years and had a dramatic impact on societies as well as on economic development. This Review highlights the key achievements in the development of industrial processes for the manufacture of eight of the 13 vitamins.

A detailed biochemical characterization of phosphopantothenate synthetase, a novel enzyme involved in coenzyme A biosynthesis in the Archaea.

We have previously reported that the majority of the archaea utilize a novel pathway for coenzyme A biosynthesis (CoA). Bacteria/eukaryotes commonly use pantothenate synthetase and pantothenate kinase to convert pantoate to 4'-phosphopantothenate. However, in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis, two novel enzymes specific to the archaea, pantoate kinase and phosphopantothenate synthetase, are responsible for this conversion. Here, we examined the enzymatic properties of the archaeal phosphopantothenate synthetase, which catalyzes the ATP-dependent condensation of 4-phosphopantoate and ß-alanine. The activation energy of the phosphopantothenate synthetase reaction was 82.3 kJ mol(-1). In terms of substrate specificity toward nucleoside triphosphates, the enzyme displayed a strict preference for ATP. Among several amine substrates, activity was detected with ß-alanine, but not with γ-aminobutyrate, glycine nor aspartate. The phosphopantothenate synthetase reaction followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics toward ß-alanine, whereas substrate inhibition was observed with 4-phosphopantoate and ATP. Feedback inhibition by CoA/acetyl-CoA and product inhibition by 4'-phosphopantothenate were not observed. By contrast, the other archaeal enzyme pantoate kinase displayed product inhibition by 4-phosphopantoate in a non-competitive manner. Based on our results, we discuss the regulation of CoA biosynthesis in the archaea.

Geminal dialkyl derivatives of N-substituted pantothenamides: synthesis and antibacterial activity.

As a key precursor of coenzyme A (CoA) biosynthesis, pantothenic acid has proven to be a useful backbone to elaborate probes of this biosynthetic pathway, study CoA-utilizing systems, and design molecules with antimicrobial activity. The increasing prevalence of bacterial strains resistant to one or more antibiotics has prompted a renewed interest for molecules with a novel mode of antibacterial action such as N-substituted pantothenamides. Although numerous derivatives have been reported, most are varied at the terminal N-substituent, and fewer at the ß-alanine moiety. Modifications at the pantoyl portion are limited to the addition of an ω-methyl group. We report a synthetic route to N-substituted pantothenamides with various alkyl substituents replacing the geminal dimethyl groups. Our methodology is also applicable to the synthesis of pantothenic acid, pantetheine and CoA derivatives. Here a small library of new N-substituted pantothenamides was synthesized. Most of these compounds display antibacterial activity against sensitive and resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Interestingly, replacement of the ProR methyl with an allyl group yielded a new N-substituted pantothenamide which is amongst the most potent reported so far.

Fast and flexible synthesis of pantothenic acid and CJ-15,801.

The fast and efficient syntheses of pantothenic acid and the antiparasitic agent CJ-15,801 have been achieved starting from a common imide unit through the selective manipulation of enamide intermediates.

Development of a method for the parallel synthesis and purification of N-substituted pantothenamides, known inhibitors of coenzyme A biosynthesis and utilization.

N-Substituted pantothenamides are a class of pantothenic acid analogues which have been shown to act as inhibitors of coenzyme A biosynthesis and utilization, especially by blocking fatty acid metabolism through formation of inactive acyl carrier proteins. To fully explore the chemical diversity and inhibitory potential of these analogues we have developed a simple method for the parallel synthesis and purification of any number of pantothenamides from a single precursor, and subsequently evaluated a small library of these compounds as inhibitors of bacterial growth to demonstrate the potential and utility of the method.

Enzymatic phosphatidylation of thiamin, pantothenic acid, and their derivatives.

Phospholipase D from Streptomyces sp. was found to catalyze the transfer reaction of the dipalmitoylphosphatidyl residue from 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-sn-phosphatidylcholine to thiamin, pantothenic acid, and their derivatives in a biphasic system. The following phosphatidylated compounds were synthesized: 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-sn-phosphatidylthiamin, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-sn-phosphatidylthiamin propyl disulfide, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-sn-phosphatidylthiamin tetrahydrofurfuryl disulfide, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-sn-phosphatidylpantothenic acid, and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-3-sn-phosphatidyl-pantothenyl ethyl ether.

Chemical knockout of pantothenate kinase reveals the metabolic and genetic program responsible for hepatic coenzyme A homeostasis.

Coenzyme A (CoA) is the major acyl group carrier in intermediary metabolism. Hopantenate (HoPan), a competitive inhibitor of the pantothenate kinases, was used to chemically antagonize CoA biosynthesis. HoPan dramatically reduced liver CoA and mice developed severe hypoglycemia. Insulin was reduced, glucagon and corticosterone were elevated, and fasting accelerated hypoglycemia. Metabolic profiling revealed a large increase in acylcarnitines, illustrating the role of carnitine in buffering acyl groups to maintain the nonesterified CoASH level. HoPan triggered significant changes in hepatic gene expression that substantially increased the thioesterases, which liberate CoASH from acyl-CoA, and increased pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1, which prevents the conversion of CoASH to acetyl-CoA. These results identify the metabolic rearrangements that maintain the CoASH pool which is critical to mitochondrial functions, including gluconeogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, and the tricarboxylic acid and urea cycles.

Mechanistic studies on phosphopantothenoylcysteine decarboxylase: trapping of an enethiolate intermediate with a mechanism-based inactivating agent.

Phosphopantothenoylcysteine decarboxylase (PPC-DC) catalyzes the decarboxylation of the cysteine moiety of 4'-phosphopantothenoylcysteine (PPC) to form 4'-phosphopantetheine (PPantSH); this reaction forms part of the biosynthesis of coenzyme A. The enzyme is a member of the larger family of cysteine decarboxylases including the lantibiotic-biosynthesizing enzymes EpiD and MrsD, all of which use a tightly bound flavin cofactor to oxidize the thiol moiety of the substrate to a thioaldehyde. The thioaldehyde serves to delocalize the charge that develops in the subsequent decarboxylation reaction. In the case of PPC-DC enzymes the resulting enethiol is reduced to a thiol giving net decarboxylation of cysteine, while in EpiD and MrsD it is released as the final product of the reaction. In this paper, we describe the characterization of the novel cyclopropyl-substituted product analogue 4'-phospho-N-(1-mercaptomethyl-cyclopropyl)-pantothenamide (PPanDeltaSH) as a mechanism-based inhibitor of the human PPC-DC enzyme. This inhibitor alkylates the enzyme on Cys(173), resulting in the trapping of a covalently bound enethiolate intermediate. When Cys(173) is exchanged for the weaker acid serine by site-directed mutagenesis the enethiolate reaction intermediate also accumulates. This suggests that Cys(173) serves as an active site acid in the protonation of the enethiolate intermediate in PPC-DC enzymes. We propose that this protonation step is the key mechanistic difference between the oxidative decarboxylases EpiD and MrsD (which have either serine or threonine at the corresponding position in their active sites) and PPC-DC enzymes, which also reduce the intermediate in an overall simple decarboxylation reaction.

Copper-mediated synthesis of N-acyl vinylogous carbamic acids and derivatives: synthesis of the antibiotic CJ-15,801.

[reaction: see text] Copper(I)-mediated C-N bond formation has been employed to prepare both N-acyl vinylogous carbamic acids and ureas. The novel N-acyl vinylogous carbamic acid antibiotic, CJ-15,801, was synthesized using this methodology.

Coenzyme A biosynthesis: steric course of 4'-phosphopantothenoyl-L-cysteine decarboxylase.

4'-Phosphopantothenoyl-L-cysteine decarboxylase (PPC decarboxylase) was partially purified from rat liver. 4'-Phosphopantothenoyl[2-2H1]-L-cysteine was synthesized and converted by PPC decarboxylase to 4'-phosphol[1-2H1]pantetheine. The product was degraded by reduction with Raney nickel followed by acidic hydrolysis to [1-2H1]ethylamine. The latter was converted to the (-)-camphanamide derivative, NMR studies of which revealed that the deuterium was located in the pro-1S position. Also, unlabeled 4'-phosphopantothenoyl-L-cysteine was incubated with PPC decarboxylase in D2O, giving, after degradation, the (-)-camphanamide of (1R)-[1-2H1]ethylamine. The results show that the decarboxylation takes place with retention of configuration. These results are discussed in terms of possible mechanisms for the decarboxylation.