Simple method to detect triclofos and its metabolites in plasma of children by combined use of liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Triclofos sodium (TCS) and chloral hydrate (CH) are widely used as sedatives for children, but no analytical method to simultaneously monitor concentrations of blood TCS, CH and their metabolites, trichloroacetic acid (TCA) and trichloroethanol (TCEOH), has been reported. The present study aimed to develop a simple analytical method for TCS and its metabolites (TCA, TCEOH and CH) in small-volume plasma from children. After acidification of specimens, TCS formic acid adduct or the metabolites derivatized using water/sulfuric acid/methanol (6:5:1, v/v) were measured by combined use of liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography mass-spectrometry. The limits of detection and quantification levels (µg/ml) were 0.10 and 0.29 for TCS, 0.24 and 0.72 for TCA, 0.10 and 0.31 for TCEOH, and 0.25 and 0.76 for CH, respectively. The mean recoveries were 82.8-107% for TCS, 85.4-101% for TCA, 91.6-107% for TCEOH, and 88.9-109% for CH. Within-run and between-run precision (percent of relative standard deviation, %RSD) using this method ranged from 1.1 to 15.7% and 3.6 to 13.5%, respectively, for TCS and all of its metabolites. The calibration curves were obtained with standard spiked plasma, and all of the coefficients of determination were more than 0.975. Subsequently, we applied the present method to plasma taken from five children after sedation induced by CH and TCS. In addition to TCS and CH, elevated TCA and TCEOH concentrations were detected. This new method can be applied for the pharmacokinetic analysis of TCS and its metabolites and the determination of the optimal TCS dosage in children.

In vivo effects of naproxen, salicylic acid, and valproic acid on the pharmacokinetics of trichloroethylene and metabolites in rats.

It was recently demonstrated that some drugs modulate in vitro metabolism of trichloroethylene (TCE) in humans and rats. The objective was to assess in vivo interactions between TCE and three drugs: naproxen (NA), valproic acid (VA), and salicylic acid (SA). Animals were exposed to TCE by inhalation (50 ppm for 6 h) and administered a bolus dose of drug by gavage, equivalent to 10-fold greater than the recommended daily dose. Samples of blood, urine, and collected tissues were analyzed by headspace gas chromatography coupled to an electron capture detector for TCE and metabolites (trichloroethanol [TCOH] and trichloroacetate [TCA]) levels. Coexposure to NA and TCE significantly increased (up to 50%) total and free TCOH (TCOHtotal and TCOHfree, respectively) in blood. This modulation may be explained by an inhibition of glucuronidation. VA significantly elevated TCE levels in blood (up to 50%) with a marked effect on TCOHtotal excretion in urine but not in blood. In contrast, SA produced an increase in TCOHtotal levels in blood at 30, 60, and 90 min and urine after coexposure. Data confirm in vitro observations that NA, VA, and SA affect in vivo TCE kinetics. Future efforts need to be directed to evaluate whether populations chronically medicated with the considered drugs display greater health risks related to TCE exposure.

Comparative analysis of the relationship between trichloroethylene metabolism and tissue-specific toxicity among inbred mouse strains: liver effects.

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a widely used organic solvent. Although TCE is classified as carcinogenic to humans, substantial gaps remain in our understanding of interindividual variability in TCE metabolism and toxicity, especially in the liver. A hypothesis was tested that amounts of oxidative metabolites of TCE in mouse liver are associated with hepatic-specific toxicity. Oral dosing with TCE was conducted in subacute (600 mg/kg/d; 5 d; 7 inbred mouse strains) and subchronic (100 or 400 mg/kg/d; 1, 2, or 4 wk; 2 inbred mouse strains) designs. The quantitative relationship was evaluated between strain-, dose-, and time-dependent formation of TCE metabolites from cytochrome P-450-mediated oxidation (trichloroacetic acid [TCA], dichloroacetic acid [DCA], and trichloroethanol) and glutathione conjugation [S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine and S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)glutathione] in serum and liver, and various hepatic toxicity phenotypes. In subacute study, interstrain variability in TCE metabolite amounts was observed in serum and liver. No marked induction of Cyp2e1 protein levels in liver was detected. Serum and hepatic levels of TCA and DCA were correlated with increased transcription of peroxisome proliferator-marker genes Cyp4a10 and Acox1 but not with degree of induction in hepatocellular proliferation. In subchronic study, serum and liver levels of oxidative metabolites gradually decreased over time despite continuous dosing. Hepatic protein levels of CYP2E1, ADH, and ALDH2 were unaffected by treatment with TCE. While the magnitude of induction of peroxisome proliferator-marker genes also declined, hepatocellular proliferation increased. This study offers a unique opportunity to provide a scientific data-driven rationale for some of the major assumptions in human health assessment of TCE.

Predictors of urinary trichloroacetic acid and baseline blood trihalomethanes concentrations among men in China.

Urinary trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) and baseline blood trihalomethanes (THMs) have been measured as biomarkers of exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products (DBPs) that have been associated with increased risk of cancers and adverse reproductive outcomes. This study aimed to identify predictors of urinary TCAA and baseline blood THMs among men in China. Urine samples, blood samples, and information on socio-demographic factors and water-use activities were collected from 2216 men who participated in a cross-sectional study of exposure to drinking water DBPs and reproductive health during 2011 to 2012. Urinary TCAA and baseline blood THMs including chloroform (TCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), and bromoform (TBM) were analyzed. Multivariable linear regression was used to evaluate predictors of urinary TCAA and baseline blood THM concentrations. Tap water consumption was significantly associated with creatinine-adjusted urinary TCAA concentration (ß = 0.23 µg/g creatinine per log10 unit; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.35). Men with surface water source had 0.13 (95% CI: 0.00, 0.27) higher mean creatinine-adjusted urinary TCAA concentrations than those with ground water source. Smoking was associated with lower concentration of creatinine-adjusted urinary TCAA. Age was significantly associated with baseline blood Br-THM (sum of BDCM, DBCM, and TBM) concentration (ß = 0.01 ng/L per unit; 95% CI: 0.00, 0.02). Increased household income was associated with decreased concentrations of baseline blood BDCM and Br-THMs. Our results suggest that tap water consumption, water source, smoking, age, and household income as the primary determinants of exposure to drinking water DBPs should be considered in exposure assessment.

Trichloroacetic acid: updated estimates of its bioavailability and its contribution to trichloroethylene-induced mouse hepatomegaly.

Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) is a common drinking water disinfection byproduct that produces a spectrum of liver effects, including hepatomegaly and liver tumors, in mice. It is also an oxidative metabolite of trichloroethylene (TCE), a solvent used in degreasing with widespread environmental exposure, which also produces hepatomegaly and liver tumors in mice. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling of TCE and TCA can be used to quantitatively compare the dose-responses for hepatomegaly for these two chemicals on the basis of internal TCA dose, and thereby test the hypothesis that TCA could fully explain TCE-induced hepatomegaly. Previously, using a PBPK model calibrated using kinetic data from i.v. and gavage dosing of TCA and from TCA produced from TCE, it was concluded that TCA accounted for only about one-fifth of the degree of hepatomegaly produced by TCE. However, recently available data suggest a non-linear change in internal TCA dose attributed to a dose-dependent fractional absorption of TCA administered in drinking water, the primary route of exposure of TCA both environmentally and in experimental toxicity studies. Therefore, in the present reanalysis, the PBPK modeling of TCA was updated using these data and the comparison between TCA- and TCE-induced hepatomegaly was revisited using updated internal dose predictions. With respect to updated PBPK modeling results, incorporating less than complete absorption of TCA administered in drinking water substantially improves the PBPK model fit to the newly available data, based on goodness-of-fit comparison. However, inter-experimental variability is high, with nearly complete absorption estimated for some studies. With respect to the comparison of TCA and TCA-induced hepatomegaly, this reanalysis predicts that TCA can account for roughly one-third to one-half of the effect observed with TCE - greater than previously reported, but still inconsistent with TCA being the sole active moiety for this effect. However, given uncertainty as to the precise degree of contribution of TCA and due to high inter-experimental variability in estimated fractional absorption, a more precise quantitative estimate of the relative contribution of TCA may obtained through an appropriate experiment in mice simultaneously measuring TCA kinetics and TCE- and TCA-induced hepatomegaly.

Reliability of using urinary and blood trichloroacetic acid as a biomarker of exposure to chlorinated drinking water disinfection byproducts.

This study was designed to analyse the reliability of using urinary and blood trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) as a biomarker of exposure. A total of 46 healthy women consumed supplied TCAA-containing tap water for 15 days and provided urine and blood samples for TCAA measurements. The findings revealed that the reliability of measurements was excellent by using measures of TCAA ingestion, blood concentration and urinary excretion (intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) > 0.75, p < 0.001). Volume of tap water consumption (ICC = 0.69) and creatinine-adjusted urinary concentration (ICC = 0.72) were less reliable. This indicated that the intraindividual variability was small and the interindividual reliability was high by using these measures in this cohort study. Laboratory variability did not significantly contribute to total variance (ICC > 0.95, p < 0.001). Other possible sources of variation such as bathing, showering, dishwashing and physical activities were unlikely to contribute significantly to total variance. For sampling strategies, 1-day blood sampling and 2-day urine sampling are sufficient to achieve reliability for an epidemiological study if a quasi-steady-state TCAA level in the body is reached. The results suggest that TCAA ingestion, TCAA loading in blood and urinary TCAA excretion are reliable measures for use as biomarkers in epidemiological studies.

Validation of urinary trichloroacetic acid as a biomarker of exposure to drinking water disinfection by-products.

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water represent a public health issue and a challenge for epidemiology to provide evidence towards the causation of various hypothesized health effects. Validation of a biomarker of exposure to DBPs is a strategy to achieve progress which has been advocated. The objective of this study was to validate urinary trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) excretion as a biomarker of exposure to DBPs in an experimental exposure cohort. A total of 52 healthy women participated in the study. Participants consumed supplied tap water for 15 d and provided urine and blood samples for TCAA measurements. The findings revealed that (1) background levels of TCAA in urine and blood were readily detectable, (2) TCAA levels in blood and urine increased with increased amounts of TCAA ingested, (3) the correlations between measurements of TCAA ingestion and urinary excretion were modest (r=0.66, p<0.001) based on one days' sampling and high (r=0.77-0.83, p<0.001) based on two to four days' sampling, (4) the correlations between measurements of TCAA ingestion and blood TCAA concentration were high (r=0.80, p<0.001) and (5) multiple days' urinary TCAA measures improved the prediction of TCAA ingestion through urinary TCAA excretion. TCAA can be a valid biomarker of exposure for DBPs in drinking water.

Liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry analysis method for simultaneous detection of trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)glutathione and S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine.

Trichloroethylene (TCE, CAS 79-01-6) is a widely used industrial chemical, and a common environmental pollutant. TCE is a well-known carcinogen in rodents and is classified as "probably carcinogenic to humans". Several analytical methods have been proposed for detection of TCE metabolites in biological media utilizing derivatization-free techniques; however, none of them is suitable for simultaneous detection of both oxidative metabolites and glutathione conjugates of TCE in small volume biological samples. Here, we report a new combination of methods for assessment of major TCE metabolites: dichloroacetic acid (DCA), trichloroacetic acid (TCA), S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine (DCVC), and S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl) glutathione (DCVG). First, DCA and TCA were extracted with ether. Second, the remaining aqueous fraction underwent solid phase extraction for DCVC and DCVG. Then, DCA and TCA were measured by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography ion exchange negative electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, while DCVC and DCVG were measured by reverse phase positive electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. This method was applied successfully to measure all 4 TCE metabolites in as little as 50 microl of serum from mice orally exposed to TCE (2100 mg/kg, 2h). Serum concentrations (mean+/-standard deviation) of the TCE metabolites obtained with this method are comparable or equivalent to those previously reported in the literature: DCA, 0.122+/-0.014 nmol/ml (limit of detection: 0.01 nmol/ml); TCA, 256+/-30 nmol/ml (0.4 nmol/ml); DCVG, 0.037+/-0.015 nmol/ml (0.001 nmol/ml); DCVC, 0.0024+/-0.0009 nmol/ml (0.001 nmol/ml). This method opens new opportunities to increase throughput and decrease number of animals required for mechanistic studies on TCE in rodents.

Resonance Rayleigh scattering spectra, non-linear scattering spectra of tetracaine hydrochloride-erythrosin system and its analytical application.

The interaction between erythrosine (ET) and tetracaine hydrochloride (TA) was studied by resonance Rayleigh scattering (RRS), frequency doubling scattering (FDS) and second-order scattering (SOS) combining with absorption spectrum. In a weak acidic medium of Britton-Robinson (BR) buffer solution of pH 4.5, erythrosine reacted with tetracaine hydrochloride to form 1:1 ion-association complex. As a result, the new spectra of RRS, SOS and FDS appeared and their intensities enhanced greatly. The maximum peaks of RRS, SOS and FDS were at 342 nm, 680 nm and 380 nm, respectively. The intensities of the three scattering were directly proportional to the concentration of TA in the range of 0.008-4.2 microg mL(-1) for RRS, 0.027-4.2 microg mL(-1) for SOS and 0.041-4.2 microg mL(-1) for FDS. The methods had very high sensitivities and good selectivities, and the detection limits were 0.003 microg mL(-1) for RRS, 0.008 microg mL(-1) for SOS and 0.012 microg mL(-1) for FDS, respectively. Therefore, a new method was developed to determinate trace amounts of TA. The recovery for the determination of TA in blood serum and urine samples was between 97.0% and 103.8%. In this study, mean polarizability was calculated by AM1 quantum chemistry method. In addition, the reasons for the enhancement of scattering spectra and the energy transfer between absorption, fluorescence and RRS were discussed.

Plasma ascorbic acid preparation and storage for epidemiological studies using TCA precipitation.

OBJECTIVES: To introduce a procedure to validate an ascorbic acid method using trichloroacetic acid (TCA) for plasma stabilization at different storage temperatures. METHODS: EDTA and heparin plasma were precipitated with TCA (1:5) containing 0.54 mol/L EDTA, or without. Samples were stored at -20 degrees C and -70 degrees C and their stability was tested at room temperature for 24 h. RESULTS: A significant 40% loss (p<0.001) of plasma ascorbic acid was found when EDTA samples with added EDTA were stored at -20 degrees C for 2-4 weeks compared with storage at -70 degrees C. Ascorbic acid in heparin plasma without added EDTA was most unstable and samples left at room temperature for 24 h lead to almost a total loss of ascorbic acid. Addition of EDTA to the TCA solution improved stability of samples of both plasma types at room temperature. CONCLUSION: The recommended procedure for ascorbic acid determination in plasma stabilized with TCA is immediate storage at -70 degrees C and inclusion of EDTA into the TCA solution.

Kinetics of chloral hydrate and its metabolites in male human volunteers.

Chloral hydrate (CH) is a short-lived intermediate in the metabolism of trichloroethylene (TRI). TRI, CH, and two common metabolites, trichloroacetic acid (TCA) and dichloroacetic acid (DCA) have been shown to be hepatocarcinogenic in mice. To better understand the pharmacokinetics of these metabolites of TRI in humans, eight male volunteers, aged 24-39, were administered single doses of 500 or 1,500 mg or a series of three doses of 500 mg given at 48 h intervals, in three separate experiments. Blood and urine were collected over a 7-day period and CH, DCA, TCA, free trichloroethanol (f-TCE), and total trichloroethanol (T-TCE=trichloroethanol and trichloroethanol-glucuronide [TCE-G]) were measured. DCA was detected in blood and urine only in trace quantities (<2 microM). TCA, on the other hand, had the highest plasma concentration and the largest AUC of any metabolite. The TCA elimination curve displayed an unusual concentration-time profile that contained three distinct compartments within the 7-day follow-up period. Previous work in rats has shown that the complex elimination curve for TCA results largely from the enterohepatic circulation of TCE-G and its subsequent conversion to TCA. As a result TCA had a very long residence time and this, in turn, led to a substantial enhancement of peak concentrations following the third dose in the multiple dose experiment. Approximately 59% of the AUC of plasma TCA following CH administration is produced via the enterohepatic circulation of TCE-G. The AUC for f-TCE was found to be positively correlated with serum bilirubin concentrations. This effect was greatest in one subject that was found to have serum bilirubin concentrations at the upper limit of the normal range in all three experiments. The AUC of f-TCE in the plasma of this individual was consistently about twice that of the other seven subjects. The kinetics of the other metabolites of CH was not significantly modified in this individual. These data indicate that individuals with a more impaired capacity for glucuronidation may be very sensitive to the central nervous system depressant effects of high doses of CH, which are commonly attributed to plasma levels of f-TCE.

Dose-dependent liver regeneration in chloroform, trichloroethylene and allyl alcohol ternary mixture hepatotoxicity in rats.

The present study was designed to examine the hypothesis that liver tissue repair induced after exposure to chloroform (CF) + trichloroethylene (TCE) + allyl alcohol (AA) ternary mixture (TM) is dose-dependent similar to that elicited by exposure to these compounds individually. Male Sprague Dawley (S-D) rats (250-300 g) were administered with fivefold dose range of CF (74-370 mg/kg, ip), and TCE (250-1250 mg/kg, ip) in corn oil and sevenfold dose range of AA (5-35 mg/kg, ip) in distilled water. Liver injury was assessed by plasma alanine amino transferase (ALT) activity and liver tissue repair was measured by (3) H-thymidine incorporation into hepatonuclear DNA. Blood and liver levels of parent compounds and two major metabolites of TCE [trichloroacetic acid (TCA) and trichloroethanol (TCOH)] were quantified by gas chromatography. Blood and liver CF and AA levels after TM were similar to CF alone or AA alone, respectively. However, the TCE levels in blood and liver were substantially decreased after TM in a dose-dependent fashion compared to TCE alone. Decreased plasma and liver TCE levels were consistent with decreased production of metabolites and elevated urinary excretion of TCE. The antagonistic interaction resulted in lower liver injury than the summation of injury caused by the individual components at all three-dose levels. On the other hand, tissue repair showed a dose-response leading to regression of injury. Although the liver injury was lower and progression was contained by timely tissue repair, 50% mortality occurred only with the high dose combination, which is several fold higher than environmental levels. The mortality could be due to the central nervous system toxicity. These findings suggest that exposure to TM results in lower initial liver injury owing to higher elimination of TCE, and the compensatory liver tissue repair stimulated in a dose-dependent manner mitigates progression of injury after exposure to TM.

Dose-dependent liver tissue repair after chloroform plus trichloroethylene binary mixture.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the hypothesis that liver tissue repair induced by exposure to chloroform (CHCl(3))+trichloroethylene binary mixture (BM) is dose-dependent similar to that elicited by exposure to these compounds individually. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (250-300 g) received three dose combinations of binary mixture (74+250, 185+500 and 370+1250 mg CHCl(3)+trichloroethylene/kg, intraperitoneally) in corn oil (maximum of 0.5 ml/kg). Liver injury was assessed by plasma alanine amino transaminase (ALT) activity and histopathology by haematoxylin & eosin. Liver tissue repair was measured by (3)H-thymidine incorporation into hepatonuclear DNA. Blood and liver levels of both the parent compounds and two major metabolites of trichloroethylene (trichloroacetic acid and trichloroethanol) were quantified by gas chromatography. The blood and liver CHCl(3) levels after the administration of binary mixture were similar compared to the administration of CHCl(3) alone. The blood and liver trichloroethylene levels after the binary mixture were significantly lower compared to trichloroethylene alone due to higher elimination in presence of CHCl(3), resulting in decreased production of metabolites. The antagonistic toxicokinetics resulted in lower liver injury than the summation of injury caused by the individual components at all three dose levels. On the other hand, tissue repair elicited by the binary mixture was dose-dependent. The interactive toxicity of this binary mixture of CHCl(3) and trichloroethylene led to subadditive initial liver injury because of a combined effect of higher elimination of TCE and mitigated progression of liver injury was prevented by timely dose-dependent stimulation of compensatory tissue repair. Even though the doses of the toxicants employed in this study are much higher than found in the environment, the results suggest that a mixture of these two compounds at environmental levels is unlikely to cause any exaggerated interactive acute liver toxicity of any biological significance.

Evaluation of dynamic headspace with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for the determination of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, trichloroethanol, and trichloroacetic acid in biological samples.

A sensitive and reproducible method is described for the analysis of trichloroacetic acid in urine and 1,1,1-trichloroethane in blood using dynamic headspace GC/MS. Samples were analyzed using the soil module of a modified purge and trap autosampler to facilitate the use of disposable purging vessels. Coefficients of variation were below 3.5% for both analytes, and response was linear in the range of 0.01-7.0 microg/ml for trichloroacetic acid and 0.9 ng/ml-2.2 microg/ml for 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Attempts at using dynamic headspace for the analysis of trichloroethanol in urine were unsuccessful.

Toxicokinetics of chloral hydrate in ad libitum-fed, dietary-controlled, and calorically restricted male B6C3F1 mice following short-term exposure.

Chloral hydrate is widely used as a sedative in pediatric medicine and is a by-product of water chlorination and a metabolic intermediate in the biotransformation of trichloroethylene. Chloral hydrate and its major metabolite, trichloroacetic acid, induce liver tumors in B6C3F1 mice, a strain that can exhibit high rates of background liver tumor incidence, which is associated with increased body weight. This report describes the influence of diet and body weight on the acute toxicity, hepatic enzyme response, and toxickinetics of chloral hydrate as part of a larger study investigating the carcinogenicity of chloral hydrate in ad libitum-fed and dietary controlled mice. Dietary control involves moderate food restriction to maintain the test animals at an idealized body weight. Mice were dosed with chloral hydrate at 0, 50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg daily, 5 days/week, by aqueous gavage for 2 weekly dosing cycles. Three diet groups were used: ad libitum, dietary control, and 40% caloric restriction. Both dietary control and caloric restriction slightly reduced acute toxicity of high doses of chloral hydrate and potentiated the induction of hepatic enzymes associated with peroxisome proliferation. Chloral hydrate toxicokinetics were investigated using blood samples obtained by sequential tail clipping and a microscale gas chromatography technique. It was rapidly cleared from serum within 3 h of dosing. Trichloroacetate was the major metabolite in serum in all three diet groups. Although the area under the curve values for serum trichloroacetate were slightly greater in the dietary controlled and calorically restricted groups than in the ad libitum-fed groups, this increase did not appear to completely account for the potentiation of hepatic enzyme induction by dietary restriction.

Plasma binding of trichloroacetic acid in mice, rats, and humans under cancer bioassay and environmental exposure conditions.

Trichloroacetic acid (TCA), a mouse liver carcinogen, is a drinking water contaminant and a metabolite of solvents such as trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene. Because acidic drugs are often bound more strongly to human than to rodent plasma proteins, a study was undertaken to determine whether this was the case for TCA and to clarify the mechanistic bases for species differences. Equilibrium dialysis was used to measure in vitro binding of a range of TCA concentrations to plasma of humans, rats, and mice. Plots of observed data for free versus bound TCA concentrations were compared with simulations from each of three binding models: a single saturable site model; a saturable plus nonsaturable site model; and a two-saturable site model. Dissociation values (Kd) did not differ significantly from one species to another, but N (number of binding sites/molecule) ranged from 2.97 for humans to 0.17 for mice. Binding capacities (Bmax) for humans, rats, and mice were 709, 283, and 29 microM, respectively. The greater plasma protein binding of TCA in humans would be expected to not only increase the residence time of the compound in the bloodstream, but to substantially reduce the proportion of TCA that is available for uptake by the liver and other tissues. Species differences in the bound fraction diminished at very low, environmentally relevant TCA concentrations, but the percentage bound increased markedly. These findings suggest that the practice of using total blood levels of TCA as a dose metric in interspecies extrapolation of cancer risks needs to be re-examined.

Subchronic toxicity of chloral hydrate on rats: a drinking water study.

The subchronic toxicity of chloral hydrate, a disinfection byproduct, was studied in rats following 13 weeks of drinking water exposure. Male (262 +/- 10 g) and female (190 +/- 8 g) Sprague-Dawley rats, ten animals per group, were administered chloral hydrate via drinking water at 0.2, 2, 20 and 200 ppm. Control animals received distilled water only. Gross and microscopic examinations, serum chemistry, hematology, biochemical analysis, neurogenic amine analysis and serum trichloroacetic acid (TCA) analysis were performed at the end of the treatment period. Bronchoalveolar fluids were collected at necropsy and urine specimens were collected at weeks 2, 6 and 12 for biochemical analysis. No treatment-related changes in food and water intakes or body weight gains were observed. There were no significant changes in the weights of major organs. Except for a mild degree of vacuolation within the myelin sheath of the optic nerves in the highest dose males, there were no notable histological changes in the tissues examined. Statistically significant treatment-related effects were biochemical in nature, with the most pronounced being increased liver catalase activity in male rats starting at 2 ppm. Liver aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) was significantly depressed, whereas liver aniline hydroxylase activity was significantly elevated in both males and females receiving the highest dose. A dose-related increase in serum TCA was detected in both males and females starting at 2 ppm. An in vitro study of liver ALDH confirmed that chloral hydrate was a potent inhibitor, with an IC(50) of 8 micro M, whereas TCA was weakly inhibitory and trichloroethanol was without effect. Analysis of brain biogenic amines was conducted on a limited number (n = 5) of male rats in the control and high dose groups, and no significant treatment-related changes were detected. Taking into account the effect on the myelin sheath of male rats and the effects on liver ALDH and aniline hydroxylase of both males and females at the highest dose level, the no-observed-effect level (NOEL) was determined to be 20 ppm or 1.89 mg kg(-1) day(-1) in males and 2.53 mg kg(-1) day(-1) in females. This NOEL is ca. 1000-fold higher than the highest concentration of chloral hydrate reported in the municipal water supply.

Tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene fatality: case report and simple headspace SPME-capillary gas chromatographic determination in tissues.

We describe a simple, precise, and sensitive assay of tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene in tissues, suitable both for emergency cases and forensic medicine. The method employs headspace solid phase microextraction-capillary gas chromatography and electron capture detection. The case is relative to a 45-year-old woman discovered unconscious in a laundry area. The concentrations of the solvents in tissues were determined and compared to other previously published fatalities.

Biochemical effects of chloral hydrate on male rats following 7-day drinking water exposure.

The biochemical and toxicological effects of chloral hydrate were investigated. Four groups (n = 7 per group) of male Sprague-Dawley rats (161-170 g) were administered chloral hydrate in drinking water at concentrations of 20, 200 or 2000 ppm for 7 days. The control group received phosphate-buffered water only. There were no treatment-related changes in the body weight gains, relative weights of major organs or haematological parameters. Trichloroacetic acid was significantly (P < 0.05) elevated in the serum of high-dose animals (7.75 +/- 5.14 mg dl(-1), mean +/- SD). In the high-dose animals there was a 36% increase in protein level in the liver homogenates but not in the corresponding 9000 g supernatants. Concurrently, there was a threefold increase in the activity of the hepatic peroxisomal enzyme palmitoyl CoA oxidase (PCO). A prominent change was the dose-related suppression in hepatic aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) activity observed in all treatment groups, with the decrease ranging from 15% at 20 ppm to 68% at 2000 ppm. There were no significant decreases in the activity of hepatic enzymes ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD), benzyloxyresorufin O-dealkylase (BROD) and UDP-glucuronosyl-transferase (UDPGT). In the high-dose group there was a 30% increase in hepatic glutathione-S transferase (GST) activity, accompanied by a 13% increase in glutathione (GSH). Significant effects on lipids were observed in the liver of the high-dose animals, with a 15% decrease in hepatic cholesterol and triglyceride levels. There were no treatment-related changes in serum chemistry parameters, including cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Although in vitro assays showed chloral hydrate to be an inhibitor of serum pseudocholinesterase activity, with a 50% inhibition concentration (ic(50)( of approximately 0.7 mM at 5 mM butyrylthiocholine, no decrease in serum pseudocholinesterase activity was found in the treated animals. It was concluded that the liver is the target organ for chloral hydrate, with suppression of ALDH as the most sensitive endpoint followed by alteration in the GSH level and GST activity. Changes observed in the high-dose animals, such as increased peroxisomal PCO activity in the liver and perturbation of lipid homeostasis in the liver and blood, were likely to be associated with trichloracetic acid, the major metabolite of chloral hydrate.