Activation of lateral preoptic neurons is associated with nest-building in male mice.

Nest-building behavior is a widely observed innate behavior. A nest provides animals with a secure environment for parenting, sleep, feeding, reproduction, and temperature maintenance. Since animal infants spend their time in a nest, nest-building behavior has been generally studied as parental behaviors, and the medial preoptic area (MPOA) neurons are known to be involved in parental nest-building. However, nest-building of singly housed male mice has been less examined. Here we show that male mice spent longer time in nest-building at the early to middle dark phase and at the end of the dark phase. These two periods are followed by sleep-rich periods. When a nest was removed and fresh nest material was introduced, both male and female mice built nests at Zeitgeber time (ZT) 6, but not at ZT12. Using Fos-immunostaining combined with double in situ hybridization of Vgat and Vglut2, we found that Vgat- and Vglut2-positive cells of the lateral preoptic area (LPOA) were the only hypothalamic neuron population that exhibited a greater number of activated cells in response to fresh nest material at ZT6, compared to being naturally awake at ZT12. Fos-positive LPOA neurons were negative for estrogen receptor 1 (Esr1). Both Vgat-positive and Vglut2-positive neurons in both the LPOA and MPOA were activated at pup retrieval by male mice. Our findings suggest the possibility that GABAergic and glutamatergic neurons in the LPOA are associated with nest-building behavior in male mice.

Regulation of stress-induced sleep fragmentation by preoptic glutamatergic neurons.

Sleep disturbances are detrimental to our behavioral and emotional well-being. Stressful events disrupt sleep, in particular by inducing brief awakenings (microarousals, MAs), resulting in sleep fragmentation. The preoptic area of the hypothalamus (POA) is crucial for sleep control. However, how POA neurons contribute to the regulation of MAs and thereby impact sleep quality is unknown. Using fiber photometry in mice, we examine the activity of genetically defined POA subpopulations during sleep. We find that POA glutamatergic neurons are rhythmically activated in synchrony with an infraslow rhythm in the spindle band of the electroencephalogram during non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMs) and are transiently activated during MAs. Optogenetic stimulation of these neurons promotes MAs and wakefulness. Exposure to acute social defeat stress fragments NREMs and significantly increases the number of transients in the calcium activity of POA glutamatergic neurons during NREMs. By reducing MAs, optogenetic inhibition during spontaneous sleep and after stress consolidates NREMs. Monosynaptically restricted rabies tracing reveals that POA glutamatergic neurons are innervated by brain regions regulating stress and sleep. In particular, presynaptic glutamatergic neurons in the lateral hypothalamus become activated after stress, and stimulating their projections to the POA promotes MAs and wakefulness. Our findings uncover a novel circuit mechanism by which POA excitatory neurons regulate sleep quality after stress.

Hormone-mediated neural remodeling orchestrates parenting onset during pregnancy.

During pregnancy, physiological adaptations prepare the female body for the challenges of motherhood. Becoming a parent also requires behavioral adaptations. Such adaptations can occur as early as during pregnancy, but how pregnancy hormones remodel parenting circuits to instruct preparatory behavioral changes remains unknown. We found that action of estradiol and progesterone on galanin (Gal)-expressing neurons in the mouse medial preoptic area (MPOA) is critical for pregnancy-induced parental behavior. Whereas estradiol silences MPOAGal neurons and paradoxically increases their excitability, progesterone permanently rewires this circuit node by promoting dendritic spine formation and recruitment of excitatory synaptic inputs. This MPOAGal-specific neural remodeling sparsens population activity in vivo and results in persistently stronger, more selective responses to pup stimuli. Pregnancy hormones thus remodel parenting circuits in anticipation of future behavioral need.

Two-Step Actions of Testicular Androgens in the Organization of a Male-Specific Neural Pathway from the Medial Preoptic Area to the Ventral Tegmental Area for Modulating Sexually Motivated Behavior.

The medial preoptic area (MPOA) is a sexually dimorphic region of the brain that regulates social behaviors. The sexually dimorphic nucleus (SDN) of the MPOA has been studied to understand sexual dimorphism, although the anatomy and physiology of the SDN is not fully understood. Here, we characterized SDN neurons that contribute to sexual dimorphism and investigated the mechanisms underlying the emergence of such neurons and their roles in social behaviors. A target-specific neuroanatomical study using transgenic mice expressing Cre recombinase under the control of Calb1, a gene expressed abundantly in the SDN, revealed that SDN neurons are divided into two subpopulations, GABA neurons projecting to the ventral tegmental area (VTA), where they link to the dopamine system (CalbVTA neurons), and GABA neurons that extend axons in the MPOA or project to neighboring regions (CalbnonVTA neurons). CalbVTA neurons were abundant in males, but were scarce or absent in females. There was no difference in the number of CalbnonVTA neurons between sexes. Additionally, we found that emergence of CalbVTA neurons requires two testicular androgen actions that occur first in the postnatal period and second in the peripubertal period. Chemogenetic analyses of CalbVTA neurons indicated a role in modulating sexual motivation in males. Knockdown of Calb1 in the MPOA reduced the intromission required for males to complete copulation. These findings provide strong evidence that a male-specific neural pathway from the MPOA to the VTA is organized by the two-step actions of testicular androgens for the modulation of sexually motivated behavior.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The MPOA is a sexually dimorphic region of the brain that regulates social behaviors, although its sexual dimorphism is not fully understood. Here, we describe a population of MPOA neurons that contribute to the sexual dimorphism. These neurons only exist in masculinized brains, and they project their axons to the ventral tegmental area, where they link to the dopamine system. Emergence of such neurons requires two testicular androgen actions that occur first in the postnatal period and second in the peripubertal period. These MPOA neurons endow masculinized brains with a neural pathway from the MPOA to the ventral tegmental area and modulate sexually motivated behavior in males.

The medial preoptic area mediates depressive-like behaviors induced by ovarian hormone withdrawal through distinct GABAergic projections.

Fluctuations in reproductive hormone levels are associated with mood disruptions in women, such as in postpartum and perimenopausal depression. However, the neural circuit mechanisms remain unclear. Here we report that medial preoptic area (MPOA) GABAergic neurons mediate multifaceted depressive-like behaviors in female mice after ovarian hormone withdrawal (HW), which can be attributed to downregulation of activity in Esr1 (estrogen receptor-1)-expressing GABAergic neurons. Enhancing activity of these neurons ameliorates depressive-like behaviors in HW-treated mice, whereas reducing their activity results in expression of these behaviors. Two separate subpopulations mediate different symptoms: a subpopulation projecting to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) mediates anhedonia and another projecting to the periaqueductal gray mediates immobility. These projections enhance activity of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA and serotonergic neurons in the dorsal raphe, respectively, with increased release of dopamine and serotonin, possibly through disinhibition mechanisms. Thus, the MPOA is a hub that mediates depressive-like behaviors resulting from transitions in reproductive hormone levels.

The α2 Adrenoceptor Agonist and Sedative/Anaesthetic Dexmedetomidine Excites Diverse Neuronal Types in the Ventrolateral Preoptic Area of Male Mice.

SUMMARY STATEMENT: Dexmedetomidine is an important ICU sedative. The mechanism of dexmedetomidine is not fully understood. Activating NA(-) and NA(+) neurons in the VLPO by dexmedetomidine using polysomnography and electrophysiological recording, this may explain the unique sedative properties with rapid arousal.

Sex Steroid Hormone Receptor Content of Medial Preoptic Efferents to the Ventral Tegmental Area Is Sexually Dimorphic: Implications for Sex Differences in Mesolimbic Reward Processing.

INTRODUCTION: The medial preoptic area (mPOA) is an important regulator of natural and drug-induced reward. However, despite the mPOA being implicated in sexually dimorphic reward responses, sex differences in medial preoptic efferents to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) have not been fully investigated. METHODS: Two cohorts of male and female rats received unilateral injections of the tract-tracer Fluoro-Gold (FLG) into the VTA. Immunohistochemical staining was used to quantify co-labeled FLG-positive neurons with γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), estrogen receptor α (ERα), and androgen receptors (AR). RESULTS: Results revealed a pattern of VTA innervation that was comparable between males and females; more efferents emerged from the rostrocentral portions of the mPOA than caudal portions. Results also indicated that males and females had the same percentage of GABAergic mPOA-VTA projections. Differences emerged when investigating the hormone receptor profile of projections to the VTA, where females had a greater percentage of efferents expressing ERα and males had a greater percentage of efferents expressing AR, in the central portion of the mPOA. Lastly, FLG-positive cells were colocalized with GABA and ERα in cohort 1 and GABA and AR in cohort 2. The majority of AR-expressing cells colocalized with GABAergic efferents to the VTA, but only a portion of ERα-expressing cells colocalized with GABAergic efferents to the VTA. CONCLUSION: Results indicate that sex differences are present in the sex-steroid hormone receptor content of mPOA-VTA projections, particularly among efferents arising from the central region of the mPOA. These sexually dimorphic connections may influence a wide range of sex differences in reward responses.

Antagonistic circuits mediating infanticide and maternal care in female mice.

In many species, including mice, female animals show markedly different pup-directed behaviours based on their reproductive state1,2. Naive wild female mice often kill pups, while lactating female mice are dedicated to pup caring3,4. The neural mechanisms that mediate infanticide and its switch to maternal behaviours during motherhood remain unclear. Here, on the basis of the hypothesis that maternal and infanticidal behaviours are supported by distinct and competing neural circuits5,6, we use the medial preoptic area (MPOA), a key site for maternal behaviours7-11, as a starting point and identify three MPOA-connected brain regions that drive differential negative pup-directed behaviours. Functional manipulation and in vivo recording reveal that oestrogen receptor α (ESR1)-expressing cells in the principal nucleus of the bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNSTprESR1) are necessary, sufficient and naturally activated during infanticide in female mice. MPOAESR1 and BNSTprESR1 neurons form reciprocal inhibition to control the balance between positive and negative infant-directed behaviours. During motherhood, MPOAESR1 and BNSTprESR1 cells change their excitability in opposite directions, supporting a marked switch of female behaviours towards the young.

Nested circuits mediate the decision to vocalize.

Vocalizations facilitate mating and social affiliation but may also inadvertently alert predators and rivals. Consequently, the decision to vocalize depends on brain circuits that can weigh and compare these potential benefits and risks. Male mice produce ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) during courtship to facilitate mating, and previously isolated female mice produce USVs during social encounters with novel females. Earlier we showed that a specialized set of neurons in the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG-USV neurons) are an obligatory gate for USV production in both male and female mice, and that both PAG-USV neurons and USVs can be switched on by their inputs from the preoptic area (POA) of the hypothalamus and switched off by their inputs from neurons on the border between the central and medial amygdala (AmgC/M-PAG neurons) (Michael et al., 2020). Here, we show that the USV-suppressing AmgC/M-PAG neurons are strongly activated by predator cues or during social contexts that suppress USV production in male and female mice. Further, we explored how vocal promoting and vocal suppressing drives are weighed in the brain to influence vocal production in male mice, where the drive and courtship function for USVs are better understood. We found that AmgC/M-PAG neurons receive monosynaptic inhibitory input from POA neurons that also project to the PAG, that these inhibitory inputs are active in USV-promoting social contexts, and that optogenetic activation of POA cell bodies that make divergent axonal projections to the amygdala and PAG is sufficient to elicit USV production in socially isolated male mice. Accordingly, AmgC/M-PAG neurons, along with POAPAG and PAG-USV neurons, form a nested hierarchical circuit in which environmental and social information converges to influence the decision to vocalize.

Warm Responsive Neurons in the Hypothalamic Preoptic Area are Potent Regulators of Glucose Homeostasis in Male Mice.

When mammals are exposed to a warm environment, overheating is prevented by activation of "warm-responsive" neurons (WRNs) in the hypothalamic preoptic area (POA) that reduce thermogenesis while promoting heat dissipation. Heat exposure also impairs glucose tolerance, but whether this also results from activation of POA WRNs is unknown. To address this question, we sought in the current work to determine if glucose intolerance induced by heat exposure can be attributed to activation of a specific subset of WRNs that express pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (ie, POAPacap neurons). We report that when mice are exposed to an ambient temperature sufficiently warm to activate POAPacap neurons, the expected reduction of energy expenditure is associated with glucose intolerance, and that these responses are recapitulated by chemogenetic POAPacap neuron activation. Because heat-induced glucose intolerance was not blocked by chemogenetic inhibition of POAPacap neurons, we conclude that POAPacap neuron activation is sufficient, but not required, to explain the impairment of glucose tolerance elicited by heat exposure.

The hyperthermic response to intra-preoptic area administration of agmatine in male rats.

Agmatine is an endogenous biogenic amine that exerts various effects on the central nervous system. The hypothalamic preoptic area (POA, thermoregulatory command center) has high agmatine immunoreactivity. In this study, in conscious and anesthetized male rats, agmatine microinjection into the POA induced hyperthermic responses associated with increased heat production and locomotor activity. Intra-POA administration of agmatine increased the locomotor activity, the brown adipose tissue temperature and rectum temperature, and induced shivering as demonstrated by increased neck muscle electromyographic activity. However, intra-POA administration of agmatine almost had no impact on the tail temperature of anesthetized rats. Furthermore, there were regional differences in the response to agmatine in the POA. The most effective sites for the microinjection of agmatine to elicit hyperthermic responses were localized in the medial preoptic area (MPA). Agmatine microinjection into the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO) and lateral preoptic nucleus (LPO) had a minimal effect on the mean core temperature. Analysis of the in vitro discharge activity of POA neurons in brain slices when perfused with agmatine showed that agmatine inhibited most warm-sensitive but not temperature-insensitive neurons in the MPA. However, regardless of thermosensitivity, the majority of MnPO and LPO neurons were not responsive to agmatine. The results demonstrated that agmatine injection into the POA of male rats, especially the MPA, induced hyperthermic responses, which may be associated with increased BAT thermogenesis, shivering and locomotor activity by inhibiting warm-sensitive neurons.

Structure and Function of Neuronal Circuits Linking Ventrolateral Preoptic Nucleus and Lateral Hypothalamic Area.

To understand how sleep-wakefulness cycles are regulated, it is essential to disentangle structural and functional relationships between the preoptic area (POA) and lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), since these regions play important yet opposing roles in the sleep-wakefulness regulation. GABA- and galanin (GAL)-producing neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO) of the POA (VLPOGABA and VLPOGAL neurons) are responsible for the maintenance of sleep, while the LHA contains orexin-producing neurons (orexin neurons) that are crucial for maintenance of wakefulness. Through the use of rabies virus-mediated neural tracing combined with in situ hybridization (ISH) in male and female orexin-iCre mice, we revealed that the vesicular GABA transporter (Vgat, Slc32a1)- and galanin (Gal)-expressing neurons in the VLPO directly synapse with orexin neurons in the LHA. A majority (56.3 ± 8.1%) of all VLPO input neurons connecting to orexin neurons were double-positive for Vgat and Gal Using projection-specific rabies virus-mediated tracing in male and female Vgat-ires-Cre and Gal-Cre mice, we discovered that VLPOGABA and VLPOGAL neurons that send projections to the LHA received innervations from similarly distributed input neurons in many brain regions, with the POA and LHA being among the main upstream areas. Additionally, we found that acute optogenetic excitation of axons of VLPOGABA neurons, but not VLPOGAL neurons, in the LHA of male Vgat-ires-Cre mice induced wakefulness. This study deciphers the connectivity between the VLPO and LHA, provides a large-scale map of upstream neuronal populations of VLPO→LHA neurons, and reveals a previously uncovered function of the VLPOGABA→LHA pathway in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We identified neurons in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO) that are positive for vesicular GABA transporter (Vgat) and/or galanin (Gal) and serve as presynaptic partners of orexin-producing neurons in the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA). We depicted monosynaptic input neurons of GABA- and galanin-producing neurons in the VLPO that send projections to the LHA throughout the entire brain. Their input neurons largely overlap, suggesting that they comprise a common neuronal population. However, acute excitatory optogenetic manipulation of the VLPOGABA→LHA pathway, but not the VLPOGAL→LHA pathway, evoked wakefulness. This study shows the connectivity of major components of the sleep/wake circuitry in the hypothalamus and unveils a previously unrecognized function of the VLPOGABA→LHA pathway in sleep-wakefulness regulation. Furthermore, we suggest the existence of subpopulations of VLPOGABA neurons that innervate LHA.

The medial preoptic area and its projections to the ventral tegmental area and the periaqueductal gray are activated in response to social play behavior in juvenile rats.

The medial preoptic area (MPOA) is well known for its role in sexual and maternal behaviors. This region also plays an important role in affiliative social behaviors outside reproductive contexts. We recently demonstrated that the MPOA is a central nucleus in which opioids govern highly rewarding social play behavior in adolescent rats. However, the neural circuit mechanisms underlying MPOA-mediated social play remain largely unresolved. We hypothesized that the MPOA unites a complementary neural system through which social play induces reward via a projection to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and reduces a negative affective state through a projection to the periaqueductal gray (PAG). To test whether the two projection pathways are activated in response to social play behavior, we combined retrograde tract tracing with immediate early gene (IEG) expression and immunofluorescent labeling to identify opioid-sensitive projection pathways from the MPOA to VTA and PAG that are activated after performance of social play. Retrograde tracer, fluoro-gold (FG), was microinjected into the VTA or PAG. IEG expression (i.e., Egr1) was assessed and triple immunofluorescent labeling for mu opioid receptor (MOR), Egr1, and FG in the MPOA was performed after social play. We revealed that play animals displayed an increase in neurons double labeled for Egr1 + FG and triple labeled for MOR + Egr1 + FG in the MPOA projecting to both the VTA and PAG when compared to no-play rats. The increased activation of projection neurons that express MORs from MPOA to VTA or PAG after social play suggests that opioids may act through these projection pathways to govern social play. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Divergent Neural Activity in the VLPO During Anesthesia and Sleep.

The invention of general anesthesia (GA) represents a significant advance in modern clinical practices. However, the exact mechanisms of GA are not entirely understood. Because of the multitude of similarities between GA and sleep, one intriguing hypothesis is that anesthesia may engage the sleep-wake regulation circuits. Here, using fiber photometry and micro-endoscopic imaging of Ca2+ signals at both population and single-cell levels, it investigates how various anesthetics modulate the neural activity in the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (vLPO), a brain region essential for the initiation of sleep. It is found that different anesthetics primarily induced suppression of neural activity and tended to recruit a similar group of vLPO neurons; however, each anesthetic caused comparable modulations of both wake-active and sleep-active neurons. These results demonstrate that anesthesia creates a different state of neural activity in the vLPO than during natural sleep, suggesting that anesthesia may not engage the same vLPO circuits for sleep generation.

Hypothalamic warm-sensitive neurons require TRPC4 channel for detecting internal warmth and regulating body temperature in mice.

Precise monitoring of internal temperature is vital for thermal homeostasis in mammals. For decades, warm-sensitive neurons (WSNs) within the preoptic area (POA) were thought to sense internal warmth, using this information as feedback to regulate body temperature (Tcore). However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which WSNs measure temperature remain largely undefined. Via a pilot genetic screen, we found that silencing the TRPC4 channel in mice substantially attenuated hypothermia induced by light-mediated heating of the POA. Loss-of-function studies of TRPC4 confirmed its role in warm sensing in GABAergic WSNs, causing additional defects in basal temperature setting, warm defense, and fever responses. Furthermore, TRPC4 antagonists and agonists bidirectionally regulated Tcore. Thus, our data indicate that TRPC4 is essential for sensing internal warmth and that TRPC4-expressing GABAergic WSNs function as a novel cellular sensor for preventing Tcore from exceeding set-point temperatures. TRPC4 may represent a potential therapeutic target for managing Tcore.

Bulbar projecting subcortical GABAergic neurons send collateral branches extensively and selectively to primary olfactory cortical regions.

Circuit operations of the olfactory bulb are modulated by higher order projections from multiple regions, many of which are themselves targets of bulbar output. Multiple glutamatergic regions project to the olfactory bulb, including the anterior olfactory nucleus (AON), prefrontal cortex (PFC), piriform cortex (PC), entorhinal cortex (EC), and tenia tecta (TT). In contrast, only one region provides GABAergic projections to the bulb. These GABA neurons are located in the horizontal limb of the diagonal band of Broca extending posteriorly through the magnocellular preoptic nucleus to the nucleus of the lateral olfactory bulb. However, it was unclear whether bulbar projecting GABAergic neurons collaterallize projecting to other brain regions. To address this, we mapped collateral projections from bulbar projecting GABAergic neurons using intersectional strategies of viral and traditional tract tracers. This approach revealed bulbar projecting GABAergic neurons show remarkable specificity targeting other primary olfactory cortical regions exhibiting abundant collateral projections into the accessory olfactory bulb, AON, PFC, PC, and TT. The only "nonolfactory" region receiving collateral projections was sparse connectivity to the medial prefrontal orbital cortex. This suggests that basal forebrain inhibitory feedback also modulates glutamatergic feedback areas that are themselves prominent bulbar projection regions. Thus, inhibitory feedback may be simultaneously modulating both synaptic processing of olfactory information in the bulb and associational processing of olfactory information from primary olfactory cortex. We hypothesize that these olfactory GABAergic feedback neurons are a regulator of the entire olfactory system.

Hypothermia evoked by stimulation of medial preoptic nucleus protects the brain in a mouse model of ischaemia.

Therapeutic hypothermia at 32-34 °C during or after cerebral ischaemia is neuroprotective. However, peripheral cold sensor-triggered hypothermia is ineffective and evokes vigorous counteractive shivering thermogenesis and complications that are difficult to tolerate in awake patients. Here, we show in mice that deep brain stimulation (DBS) of warm-sensitive neurones (WSNs) in the medial preoptic nucleus (MPN) produces tolerable hypothermia. In contrast to surface cooling-evoked hypothermia, DBS mice exhibit a torpor-like state without counteractive shivering. Like hypothermia evoked by chemogenetic activation of WSNs, DBS in free-moving mice elicits a rapid lowering of the core body temperature to 32-34 °C, which confers significant brain protection and motor function reservation. Mechanistically, activation of WSNs contributes to DBS-evoked hypothermia. Inhibition of WSNs prevents DBS-evoked hypothermia. Maintaining the core body temperature at normothermia during DBS abolishes DBS-mediated brain protection. Thus, the MPN is a DBS target to evoke tolerable therapeutic hypothermia for stroke treatment.

A thalamo-preoptic pathway promotes social grooming in rodents.

Social touch is an essential component of communication. Little is known about the underlying pathways and mechanisms. Here, we discovered a novel neuronal pathway from the posterior intralaminar thalamic nucleus (PIL) to the medial preoptic area (MPOA) involved in the control of social grooming. We found that the neurons in the PIL and MPOA were naturally activated by physical contact between female rats and also by the chemogenetic stimulation of PIL neurons. The activity-dependent tagging of PIL neurons was performed in rats experiencing physical social contact. The chemogenetic activation of these neurons increased social grooming between familiar rats, as did the selective activation of the PIL-MPOA pathway. Neurons projecting from the PIL to the MPOA express the neuropeptide parathyroid hormone 2 (PTH2), and the central infusion of its receptor antagonist diminished social grooming. Finally, we showed a similarity in the anatomical organization of the PIL and the distribution of the PTH2 receptor in the MPOA between the rat and human brain. We propose that the discovered neuronal pathway facilitates physical contact with conspecifics.

Prolactin Action Is Necessary for Parental Behavior in Male Mice.

Parental care is critical for successful reproduction in mammals. Recent work has implicated the hormone prolactin in regulating male parental behavior, similar to its established role in females. Male laboratory mice show a mating-induced suppression of infanticide (normally observed in virgins) and onset of paternal behavior 2 weeks after mating. Using this model, we sought to investigate how prolactin acts in the forebrain to regulate paternal behavior. First, using c-fos immunoreactivity in prolactin receptor (Prlr) Prlr-IRES-Cre-tdtomato reporter mouse sires, we show that the circuitry activated during paternal interactions contains prolactin-responsive neurons in multiple sites, including the medial preoptic nucleus, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and medial amygdala. Next, we deleted Prlr from three prominent cell types found in these regions: glutamatergic, GABAergic, and CaMKIIα. Prlr deletion from CaMKIIα, but not glutamatergic or GABAergic cells, had a profound effect on paternal behavior as none of these KO males completed the pup-retrieval task. Prolactin was increased during mating, but not in response to pups, suggesting that the mating-induced secretion of prolactin is important for establishing the switch from infanticidal to paternal behavior. Pharmacological blockade of prolactin secretion at mating, however, had no effect on paternal behavior. In contrast, suppressing prolactin secretion at the time of pup exposure resulted in failure to retrieve pups, with exogenous prolactin administration rescuing this behavior. Together, our data show that paternal behavior in sires is dependent on basal levels of circulating prolactin acting at the time of interaction with pups, mediated through Prlr on CaMKIIα-expressing neurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Parental care is critical for offspring survival. Compared with maternal care, however, the neurobiology of paternal care is less well understood. Here we show that the hormone prolactin, which is most well known for its female-specific role in lactation, has a role in the male brain to promote paternal behavior. In the absence of prolactin signaling specifically during interactions with pups, father mice fail to show normal retrieval behavior of pups. These data demonstrate that prolactin has a similar action in both males and females to promote parental care.

Control of non-REM sleep by ventrolateral medulla glutamatergic neurons projecting to the preoptic area.

Understanding the neural mechanisms underlying sleep state transitions is a fundamental goal of neurobiology and important for the development of new treatments for insomnia and other sleep disorders. Yet, brain circuits controlling this process remain poorly understood. Here we identify a population of sleep-active glutamatergic neurons in the ventrolateral medulla (VLM) that project to the preoptic area (POA), a prominent sleep-promoting region, in mice. Microendoscopic calcium imaging demonstrate that these VLM glutamatergic neurons display increased activity during the transitions from wakefulness to Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) sleep. Chemogenetic silencing of POA-projecting VLM neurons suppresses NREM sleep, whereas chemogenetic activation of these neurons promotes NREM sleep. Moreover, we show that optogenetic activation of VLM glutamatergic neurons or their projections in the POA initiates NREM sleep in awake mice. Together, our findings uncover an excitatory brainstem-hypothalamic circuit that controls the wake-sleep transitions.