Gmelina arborea- an indigenous timber species of India with high medicinal value: A review on its pharmacology, pharmacognosy and phytochemistry.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Gmelina arborea Roxb.ex Smith, a fast-growing deciduous tree belongs to the family Lamiaceae, and is an important plantation species in many tropical areas around the world. The species is naturally distributed in semi-deciduous forests in tropical/subtropical regions of South East Asia. The tree is also an important medicinal plant in the Indian Systems of Medicine. The whole plant is used in medicine. It is astringent, bitter, digestive, cardiotonic, diuretic, laxative and pulmonary and nervine tonic. It improves digestion, memory, helps overcome giddiness and is useful in burning sensation, fever, thirst, emaciation, heart diseases, nervous disorders and piles. The roots are acrid, bitter-sweet in taste, stomachic, tonic, laxative, galactagogue and antihelmintic. The flowers are sweet, refrigerant, bitter, astringent and acrid, and are used in treating leprosy and skin diseases. The fruits are acrid, sour, sweet, refrigerant, bitter, astringent, aphrodisiac, trichogenous, alterant and tonic. Fruits are edible and also used for promoting hair growth and in treating anaemia, leprosy, ulcers, constipation, leucorrhoea and colitis. The leaves are a good fodder also. The major bioactive compounds extracted from different parts of G. arborea are arboreal, verbascoside, tyrosol, iridoids, phenylpropanoid glycoside, premnazole, martynoside, iridoid glycosides, balanophonin, gmelinol, isoarboreol apigenin, umbelliferone etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: This review provides an insight into the medicinal aspects of G. arborea. It provides the latest information on phytochemistry, pharmacological activities and traditional uses of G.arborea. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Information on G. arborea was gathered from various sources like textbooks, literature, databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, Wiley, Springer, Taylor and Francis, Scopus, Inflibnet, Sci-Finder and Google Scholar. RESULTS: Sixty-nine phytochemicals which include lignans, acylated iridoid glycosides, acylated rhamnopyranoses, flavonoids, flavones, flavone glycosides have been isolated. Many of them have been characterized for their pharmacological activity. Several researchers have identified bioactive phytochemicals like luteolin, iridoid alkaloids from the leaves, hentriacontanol and lignans such as arboreol, isoarboreol, arborone, gmelanone, gummadiol from the heartwood, flavon glycosides in roots. The extracts are reported to have wound-healing and antidiarrheal properties. Various studies demonstrated that G.arborea and its constituents possess several pharmacological activities like anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, analgesic, anti-nociceptive, anticancer and wound healing activities. CONCLUSION: G. arborea is a valuable medicinal plant used traditionally in the Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM - Ayurveda and Unani) to treat a wide variety of ailments. These phytochemicals are highly bioactive and exhibit various pharmacological activities. However, pharmacological activities of many compounds which have been identified, are yet to be understood.

Modeled effects of soil acidification on long-term ecological and economic outcomes for managed forests in the Adirondack region (USA).

Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) is among the most ecologically and economically important tree species in North America, and its growth and regeneration is often the focus of silvicultural practices in northern hardwood forests. A key stressor for sugar maple (SM) is acid rain, which depletes base cations from poorly-buffered forest soils and has been associated with much lower SM vigor, growth, and recruitment. However, the potential interactions between forest management and soil acidification - and their implications for the sustainability of SM and its economic and cultural benefits - have not been investigated. In this study, we simulated the development of 50 extant SM stands in the western Adirondack region of NY (USA) for 100years under different soil chemical conditions and silvicultural prescriptions. We found that interactions between management prescription and soil base saturation will strongly shape the ability to maintain SM in managed forests. Below 12% base saturation, SM did not regenerate sufficiently after harvest and was replaced mainly by red maple (Acer rubrum) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia). Loss of SM on acid-impaired sites was predicted regardless of whether the shelterwood or diameter-limit prescriptions were used. On soils with sufficient base saturation, models predicted that SM will regenerate after harvest and be sustained for future rotations. We then estimated how these different post-harvest outcomes, mediated by acid impairment of forest soils, would affect the potential monetary value of ecosystem services provided by SM forests. Model simulations indicated that a management strategy focused on syrup production - although not feasible across the vast areas where acid impairment has occurred - may generate the greatest economic return. Although pollution from acid rain is declining, its long-term legacy in forest soils will shape future options for sustainable forestry and ecosystem stewardship in the northern hardwood forests of North America.

Effects of tannin source and concentration from tree leaves on two species of tadpoles.

Vegetation in and around freshwater ecosystems can affect aquatic organisms through the production of secondary compounds, which are retained in leaves after senescence and are biologically active. Tannins can be toxic to tadpoles, but the plant source of tannins and tannin concentration have been confounded in experimental designs in previous studies. To examine the effects of the concentration and source of tannins (tree species), we examined the effects of 4 factors on tadpole survival, growth, and development: tannin source (red oak [Quercus rubra], white oak [Quercus alba], or sugar maple [Acer saccharum]); tannin concentration (including a control); diet protein level; and tadpole species (American toad [Anaxyrus americanus] and spring peepers [Pseudacris crucifer]). Tannin source and concentration affected spring peeper survival, but American toads had uniformly high survival. Spring peepers had a lower survival rate in high tannin concentrations of oak leachate but a high survival rate in both concentrations of sugar maple leachate. These differences in survival did not correspond with changes in dissolved oxygen, and no effect of dietary protein level on tadpole performance was observed. The presence of plant leachate resulted in increased tadpole growth in both species, but the mechanism for this finding is unclear. The results of the present study show that tannin concentration and source are important factors for tadpole performance, adding further evidence that plant chemistry can affect aquatic organisms.

Uptake of ferrocyanide in willow and poplar trees in a long term greenhouse experiment.

Phytoremediation of sites contaminated with iron cyanides can be performed using poplar and willow trees. Poplar and willow trees were grown in potting substrate spiked with ferrocyanide concentrations of up to 2,000 mg kg(-1) for 4 and 8 weeks respectively. Soil solution and leaf tissue of different age were sampled for total cyanide analysis every week. Chlorophyll content in the leaves was determined to quantify cyanide toxicity. Results showed that cyanide in the soil solution of spiked soils differed between treatments and on weekly basis and ranged from 0.5 to 1,200 mg l(-1). The maximum cyanide content in willow and poplar leaves was 518 mg kg(-1) fresh weight (FW) and 148 mg kg(-1) FW respectively. Cyanide accumulated in the leaves increased linearly with increasing cyanide concentration in the soil solution. On the long term, significantly more cyanide was accumulated in old leaf tissue than in young tissue. Chlorophyll content in poplar decreased linearly with increasing cyanide in the soil solution and in leaf tissue, and over time. The inhibitory concentration (IC50) value for poplars after 4 weeks of exposure was 173 mg l(-1) and for willow after 8 weeks of exposure-768 mg l(-1). Results show that willows tolerate much more cyanide and over a longer period than poplars, making them very appropriate for remediating sites highly contaminated with iron cyanides.

Unusual amino acids and monofluoroacetate from Dichapetalum michelsonii (Umutambasha), a toxic plant from Rwanda.

In the course of our investigations on Umutambasha in order to identify its convulsant principles, small quantities of monofluoroacetate were observed in stem bark, leaves, and fruits of this plant newly identified as Dichapetalum michelsonii Hauman. Conclusive evidence for a monofluoroacetate presence came from its isolation from the freeze-dried extract of stem bark. Three free unusual amino acids, named N-methyl-α-alanine, N-methyl-ß-alanine, and 2,7-diaminooctan-1,8-dioic acid, described for the first time in a plant, and known trigonelline were also isolated from the stem bark of D. michelsonii. Structure elucidations were mainly achieved by spectroscopic methods (1H-NMR, 2D-NMR, MS) and by comparison with authentic references. These unusual amino acids were detected by a fast, reliable TLC analysis in all our batches of Umutambasha, suggesting that they could be used for identification purposes in case of human or livestock intoxications. Finally, EEG recordings and behavioural observations performed in mice suggested that the convulsive patterns produced by Umutambasha are the consequence of monofluoroacetate presence in D. michelsonii.

Assessment of the toxicity of the Brazilian pepper trees Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (Aroeira-da-praia) and Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão (Aroeira-do-sertão).

The present study aimed to assess the preclinical toxicity of two plants commonly used to treat "stomach ailments" in Brazil: Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (S) and Myracrodruon urundeuva Allemão (M). In male rats, chronic treatment (83 days) with both pepper trees (17.6 and 13.8 mg/kg, S and M, respectively) has been shown to decrease hematocrit. However, a reduction in the number of red blood cells and hemoglobin was only seen following administration of S. terebinthifolius. None of the plants caused anatomopathological alterations following chronic treatment, and mating ability and fertility were not affected. Both pepper trees showed moderate toxicity following acute and chronic treatment by gavage, particularly S. terebinthifolius. Moreover, bone malformations were induced in fetuses, and a slight delay in recovery time of the postural reflex was observed in pups from female animals treated (18 days) with S. terebinthifolius. Given these results, a better assessment of the risks and benefits of the internal use of these plants is necessary, especially when used by women of childbearing age.

Pharmacological properties of Datura stramonium L. as a potential medicinal tree: an overview.

India has a great wealth of various naturally occurring plant drugs which have great potential pharmacological activities. Datura stramonium (D. stramonium) is one of the widely well known folklore medicinal herbs. The troublesome weed, D. stramonium is a plant with both poisonous and medicinal properties and has been proven to have great pharmacological potential with a great utility and usage in folklore medicine. D. stromonium has been scientifically proven to contain alkaloids, tannins, carbohydrates and proteins. This plant has contributed various pharmacological actions in the scientific field of Indian systems of medicines like analgesic and antiasthmatic activities. The present paper presents an exclusive review work on the ethnomedical, phytochemical, pharmacological activities of this plant.

Isolation and phytotoxicity of terpenes from Tectona grandis.

A study was carried out on the allelopathic potential of four forest species, Tectona grandis, Aleurites fordii, Gliricidia sepium, and Maytenus buxifolia. The most active species, T. grandis, was selected to perform a phytochemical study. A new compound, abeograndinoic acid, was isolated, and elucidation of its structure showed that this compound has an unusual carbon skeleton. A further 21 known terpenoids-including 4 sesquiterpenoids, 8 diterpenes and 9 triterpenes-also were isolated. A biosynthetic scheme for the presence of the new compound is proposed. Bioactivity profiles that used etiolated wheat coleoptiles and phytotoxicity bioassays on the isolated compounds were conducted. The compounds that presented the highest phytotoxic activity are the diterpenes 9 (2-oxokovalenic acid) and 12 (19-hydroxyferruginol).

Los hongos ectomicorrízicos: lazos vivientes que conectan y nutren a los árboles en la naturaleza / Ectomycorrhizal fungi: living ties that bind and nature plants in nature

La micorriza es una simbiosis que se establece entre alrededor de 5000 especies de hongos y más del 90 por ciento de las especies de plantas vasculares. La simbiosis micorrízica juega un papel crucial en la estructura y funcionamiento de los ecosistemas naturales de regiones tropicales, templadas y árboles del planeta. Este artículo discute la importancia ecofisiológica de uno de más importantes tipos de micorriza, la ectomicorriza. Ésta se establece entre las raíces de angiopermas y gimnospermas y hongos, principalmente Basidiomycetes y Ascomycetes. Uno de los componentes de mayor importancia de dicha simbiosis es el micelio externo, el cual es una de las estructuras biológicas más fascinantes, dado que cosntituye, estructural y funcionalmente, una interfase entre los componentes edáfico y vegetal de los ecosistemas. La principal función de dicho micelio externo es el importante papel que juega en el reciclaje de nutrientes en los ecosistemas. Más de un siglo de investigación ha documentado esta función, principalmente al estudiar compuestos minerales. Sin embargo, recientemente se ha demostardo con enfóques metodológicos más realistas que mediante su asociación simbiótica con el micelio de estos hongos las plantas también tienen la capacidad de acceder a nutrientes a partir de fuentes orgánicas que incluyen necromasa vegetal, animal y microbiana. Asimismo, otra función de dicho micelio que ha modificado la manera como el componente vegetal se percibe ahora desde el punto de vista ecológico, es su habilidad para conectar árboles en la naturaleza

Efeito larvicida e toxicológico do extrato de bruto etanólico da casca do caule de Magonia pubescens sobre Aedes aegypti (Diptera, Culicidae), em criadouros artificiais / Larvicide and toxic effect of the ethanol crude extract of the stem coat of Magonia pubescens towards Aedes aegypti in laboratory

Ensaios biológicos foram realizados, em condições de campo, para verificar a atividade larvicida do extrato bruto etanólico (e.b.e.) da casca do caule da Magonia pubescens sobre o Aedes aegypti, na busca de novas alternativas de controle para esse mosquito. O material botânico foi coletado e, em seguida, dessecado em estufa de ar forçado a 40°C, moído, percolado a frio em etanol por 72 horas, filtrado, concentrado em evaporador rotativo e dessecado em uma capela à temperatura ambiente. O e.b.e. obtido foi dissolvido em água destilada e testado para todos os estádios larvais de A. aegypti. No laboratório, os experimentos foram realizados em copos descartáveis de 50 ml, colocando-se 25 ml de solução e 1 larva em cada um. Foram feitas 20 réplicas para cada estádio e testemunha. A mortalidade foi avaliada após 48 horas do início do teste. A CL50 encontrada para larvas de primeiro, segundo, terceiro e quarto estádios foi de: 35; 36; 75 e 70 mg de e.b.e./100 ml de água destilada, respectivamente. Na seqüência dos estádios, a CL100 foi de 45; 85; 125 e 115 mg de e.b.e./100ml de água destilada. No campo os bioensaios foram realizados com larvas de terceiro estádio, por um período de 12 semanas, num fundo de quintal, na cidade de Anápolis, Goiás. Para esses experimentos utilizou-se água do sistema público, e a CL100 foi ajustada para 140 mg/100ml de água. A solução do e.b.e., na dose ajustada, foi colocada nos criadouros artificiais mais comuns do A. aegypti, para avaliar a atividade residual e a interferência do tipo de recipiente na mortalidade. O e.b.e. da M. pubescens demonstrou atividade larvicida para todos os estádios de A. aegypti, no laboratório. No campo, a mortalidade diminuiu à medida que a solução envelhecia. O tipo de criadouro interferiu na mortalidade. Testes toxicológicos foram realizados com o e.b.e. da M. pubescens, que se mostrou atóxico de acordo com as normas para produtos de origem vegetal.

Isolation, identification, and characterization of compounds from acer rubrum capable of oxidizing equine erythrocytes.

OBJECTIVE: To identify compounds in Acer rubrum that cause hemolysis or oxidation of equine erythrocytes and determine whether these toxins are found in other Acer spp. SAMPLE POPULATION: Equine erythrocytes. PROCEDURE: Washed erythrocytes were incubated with extracts and fractions of Acer spp that were separated by thin layer chromatography. Methemoglobin and hemolysis were measured spectrophotometrically. Compounds within Acer spp fractions associated with cell oxidation or hemolysis were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. RESULTS: Erythrocytes incubated separately with either A. rubrum, A. saccharum, or A. saccharinum extracts had increased methemoglobin formation, compared with extract-free control samples. Two Acer spp fractions had toxic effects on erythrocytes in vitro. A major component of the Acer fraction that caused a significant amount of methemoglobin formation was identified as gallic acid. An amount of gallic acid equivalent to that found in A. rubrum extract significantly increased methemoglobin, compared with extract-free control erythrocytes, but caused less methemoglobin formation than A. rubrum extracts did. A potential co-oxidant, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methoxy-4H-pyran-4-one, was found in the A. rubrum extract and may have been responsible for increasing methemoglobin formation. A second A. rubrum fraction caused methemoglobin formation and significant hemolysis. A. saccharum and A. saccharinum extracts caused hemolysis but less than the A. rubrum extracts did. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Oxidants in A. rubrum are also found in A. saccharum and A. saccharinum, and the ingestion of A. saccharum and A. saccharinum poses a potential threat to horses.

Neuronal vacuolation of the trigeminal nuclei in goats caused by ingestion of Prosopis juliflora pods (mesquite beans).

Three groups of 6 goats each were fed a ration containing 30, 60, or 90%, on a dry matter base, of Prosopis juliflora pods. A control group of 4 goats ingested only the basic ration. Two hundred and ten days after the start of the experiment 3 goats that ingested 60% pods in and 4 that ingested 90% had mandibular tremors, mainly during chewing. All animals were killed after 270 d of ingestion. No gross lesions were observed. Histologic lesions were characterized by fine vacuolation of the pericaryon of neurons from the trigeminal nuclei. Occasionally neurons of the oculomotor nuclei were also affected. Wallerian degeneration was occasionally observed in the mandibular and trigeminal nerves. Denervation atrophy of the masseter, temporal, hypoglossus, genioglossus, styloglossus, medial pterygoid and lateral pterygoid muscles was seen. The clinical signs from feeding the P juliflora pods were caused by a selective toxicity to neurons of some cranial nerve nuclei.

Comparison of disease in calves dosed orally with oak or commercial tannic acid.

Commercial tannic acid has been used as a substitute for leaves and acorns in studies of oak toxicosis in some species. The toxicity of a commercial tannic acid given orally to calves was determined, and the clinical signs, laboratory findings, and pyrogallol production were compared with those found in calves dosed orally with oak leaves. The oak-fed calves developed the clinical signs and lesions characteristic of renal failure. Proteinuria developed by 48 hours in 1 calf and by 72 hours in the other calf. Both calves developed hematuria on day 4 and glucosuria on day 5. The blood urea nitrogen and creatinine values increased markedly on day 6. Pyrogallol was detected in the serum only at 3 and 6 hours after the calves began ingesting the oak leaves. Pyrogallol was detected in urine from 1 calf until 60 hours and in the other calf until 48 hours after the beginning of oak intake. The 2 calves that were dosed with tannic acid at the same level as found in the leaves fed to the other calves did not develop clinical signs, abnormal laboratory findings, or pyrogallol production. Calves given high levels of tannic acid at doses of 4.4-5.5 g/kg developed methemoglobinemia rather than renal disease. Therefore, commercial tannic acid given orally cannot be used as a substitute for oak in studies of toxicosis in cattle.