Autotransporter-Mediated Display of a Naïve Affibody Library on the Outer Membrane of Escherichia coli.

Development of new affinity proteins using combinatorial protein engineering is today established for generation of monoclonal antibodies and also essential for discovery of binders that are based on non-immunoglobulin proteins. Phage display is most frequently used, but yeast display is becoming increasingly popular, partly due to the option of utilizing fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for isolation of new candidates. Escherichia coli has several valuable properties for library applications and in particular the high transformation efficiency. The use of various autotransporters and intimins for secretion and anchoring on the outer membrane have shown promising results and particularly for directed evolution of different enzymes. Here, the authors report on display of a large naïve affibody library on the outer membrane of E. coli using the autotransporter Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence (AIDA-I). The expression cassette is first engineered by removing non-essential sequences, followed by introduction of an affibody library, comprising more than 109 variants, into the new display vector. The quality of the library and general performance of the method is assessed by FACS against five different targets, which resulted in a panel of binders with down to nanomolar affinities, suggesting that the method has potential as a complement to phage display for generation of affibody molecules.

TosR-Mediated Regulation of Adhesins and Biofilm Formation in Uropathogenic Escherichia coli.

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli strains utilize a variety of adherence factors that assist in colonization of the host urinary tract. TosA (type one secretion A) is a nonfimbrial adhesin that is predominately expressed during murine urinary tract infection (UTI), binds to kidney epithelial cells, and promotes survival during invasive infections. The tosRCBDAEF operon encodes the secretory machinery necessary for TosA localization to the E. coli cell surface, as well as the transcriptional regulator TosR. TosR binds upstream of the tos operon and in a concentration-dependent manner either induces or represses tosA expression. TosR is a member of the PapB family of fimbrial regulators that can participate in cross talk between fimbrial operons. TosR also binds upstream of the pap operon and suppresses PapA production. However, the scope of TosR-mediated cross talk is understudied and may be underestimated. To quantify the global effects of TosR-mediated regulation on the E. coli CFT073 genome, we induced expression of tosR, collected mRNA, and performed high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq). These findings show that production of TosR affected the expression of genes involved with adhesins, including P, F1C, and Auf fimbriae, nitrate-nitrite transport, microcin secretion, and biofilm formation.IMPORTANCE Uropathogenic E. coli strains cause the majority of UTIs, which are the second most common bacterial infection in humans. During a UTI, bacteria adhere to cells within the urinary tract, using a number of different fimbrial and nonfimbrial adhesins. Biofilms can also develop on the surfaces of catheters, resulting in complications such as blockage. In this work, we further characterized the regulator TosR, which links both adhesin production and biofilm formation and likely plays a crucial function during UTI and disseminated infection.

Fimbria-Encoding Gene yadC Has a Pleiotropic Effect on Several Biological Characteristics and Plays a Role in Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli Pathogenicity.

The extraintestinal pathogen termed avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) is known to cause colibacillosis in chickens. The molecular basis of APEC pathogenesis is not fully elucidated yet. In this work, we deleted a component of the Yad gene cluster (yadC) in order to understand the role of Yad in the pathogenicity of the APEC strain SCI-07. In vitro, the transcription level of yadC was upregulated at 41°C and downregulated at 22°C. The yadC expression in vivo was more pronounced in lungs than in spleen, suggesting a role in the early steps of the infection. Chicks infected with the wild-type and mutant strains presented, respectively, 80% and 50% mortality rates. The ΔyadC strain presented a slightly decreased ability to adhere to HeLa cells with or without the d-mannose analog compared with the wild type. Real-time PCR (RT-PCR) assays showed that fimH was downregulated (P < 0.05) and csgA and ecpA were slightly upregulated in the mutant strain, showing that yadC modulates expression of other fimbriae. Bacterial internalization studies showed that the ΔyadC strain had a lower number of intracellular bacteria recovered from Hep-2 cells and HD11 cells than the wild-type strain (P < 0.05). Motility assays in soft agar demonstrated that the ΔyadC strain was less motile than the wild type (P < 0.01). Curiously, flagellum-associated genes were not dramatically downregulated in the ΔyadC strain. Taken together, the results show that the fimbrial adhesin Yad contributes to the pathogenicity and modulates different biological characteristics of the APEC strain SCI-07.

Dual ligand/receptor interactions activate urothelial defenses against uropathogenic E. coli.

During urinary tract infection (UTI), the second most common bacterial infection, dynamic interactions take place between uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) and host urothelial cells. While significant strides have been made in the identification of the virulence factors of UPEC, our understanding of how the urothelial cells mobilize innate defenses against the invading UPEC remains rudimentary. Here we show that mouse urothelium responds to the adhesion of type 1-fimbriated UPEC by rapidly activating the canonical NF-κB selectively in terminally differentiated, superficial (umbrella) cells. This activation depends on a dual ligand/receptor system, one between FimH adhesin and uroplakin Ia and another between lipopolysaccharide and Toll-like receptor 4. When activated, all the nuclei (up to 11) of a multinucleated umbrella cell are affected, leading to significant amplification of proinflammatory signals. Intermediate and basal cells of the urothelium undergo NF-κB activation only if the umbrella cells are detached or if the UPEC persistently express type 1-fimbriae. Inhibition of NF-κB prevents the urothelium from clearing the intracellular bacterial communities, leading to prolonged bladder colonization by UPEC. Based on these data, we propose a model of dual ligand/receptor system in innate urothelial defenses against UPEC.

Programming controlled adhesion of E. coli to target surfaces, cells, and tumors with synthetic adhesins.

In this work we report synthetic adhesins (SAs) enabling the rational design of the adhesion properties of E. coli. SAs have a modular structure comprising a stable ß-domain for outer membrane anchoring and surface-exposed immunoglobulin domains with high affinity and specificity that can be selected from large repertoires. SAs are constitutively and stably expressed in an E. coli strain lacking a conserved set of natural adhesins, directing a robust, fast, and specific adhesion of bacteria to target antigenic surfaces and cells. We demonstrate the functionality of SAs in vivo, showing that, compared to wild type E. coli, lower doses of engineered E. coli are sufficient to colonize solid tumors expressing an antigen recognized by the SA. In addition, lower levels of engineered bacteria were found in non-target tissues. Therefore, SAs provide stable and specific adhesion capabilities to E. coli against target surfaces of interest for diverse applications using live bacteria.

The Intimin-Like Protein FdeC Is Regulated by H-NS and Temperature in Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli.

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) is a Shiga-toxigenic pathogen capable of inducing severe forms of enteritis (e.g., hemorrhagic colitis) and extraintestinal sequelae (e.g., hemolytic-uremic syndrome). The molecular basis of colonization of human and animal hosts by EHEC is not yet completely understood, and an improved understanding of EHEC mucosal adherence may lead to the development of interventions that could disrupt host colonization. FdeC, also referred to by its IHE3034 locus tag ECOK1_0290, is an intimin-like protein that was recently shown to contribute to kidney colonization in a mouse urinary tract infection model. The expression of FdeC is tightly regulated in vitro, and FdeC shows promise as a vaccine candidate against extraintestinal E. coli strains. In this study, we characterized the prevalence, regulation, and function of fdeC in EHEC. We showed that the fdeC gene is conserved in both O157 and non-O157 EHEC and encodes a protein that is expressed at the cell surface and promotes biofilm formation under continuous-flow conditions in a recombinant E. coli strain background. We also identified culture conditions under which FdeC is expressed and showed that minor alterations of these conditions, such as changes in temperature, can significantly alter the level of FdeC expression. Additionally, we demonstrated that the transcription of the fdeC gene is repressed by the global regulator H-NS. Taken together, our data suggest a role for FdeC in EHEC when it grows at temperatures above 37°C, a condition relevant to its specialized niche at the rectoanal junctions of cattle.

Antigen 43/Fcε3 chimeric protein expressed by a novel bacterial surface expression system as an effective asthma vaccine.

The IgE Fcε3 domain is an active immunotherapeutic target for asthma and other allergic diseases. However, previous methods for preparing IgE fusion protein vaccines are complex. Antigen 43 (Ag43) is a surface protein found in Escherichia coli that contains α and ß subunits (the α subunit contains multiple T epitopes). Here we constructed a novel Ag43 surface display system (Ag43 system) to express Ag43 chimeric proteins to disrupt immune tolerance against IgE. The Ag43 system was constructed from the E. coli strain Tan109, in which the Ag43 gene was deleted and a recombinant plasmid (pETAg43) expressing a partial Ag43 gene was introduced. The Fcε3 domain of the IgE gene was then subcloned into plasmid pETAg43, resulting in a recombinant plasmid pETAg43/Fcε3, which was used to transform Tan109 for Ag43/Fcε3 surface expression. Thereafter, Ag43/Fcε3 was investigated as an asthma vaccine in a mouse model. Ag43/Fcε3 was expressed on and could be separated from the bacterial surface by heating to 60° while retaining activity. Ag43/Fcε3, as a protein vaccine, produced neutralizing autoantibodies to murine IgE, induced significant anti-asthma effects, and regulated IgE and T helper cytokines in a murine asthma model. Data show that Ag43/Fcε3 chimeric protein is a potential model vaccine for asthma treatment, and that the Ag43 system may be an effective tool for novel vaccine preparation to break immune tolerance to other self-molecules.

Pilicides inhibit the FGL chaperone/usher assisted biogenesis of the Dr fimbrial polyadhesin from uropathogenic Escherichia coli.

BACKGROUND: The global spread of bacterial resistance has given rise to a growing interest in new anti-bacterial agents with a new strategy of action. Pilicides are derivatives of ring-fused 2-pyridones which block the formation of the pili/fimbriae crucial to bacterial pathogenesis. They impair by means of a chaperone-usher pathway conserved in the Gram-negative bacteria of adhesive structures biogenesis. Pili/fimbriae of this type belong to two subfamilies, FGS and FGL, which differ in the details of their assembly mechanism. The data published to date have shown that pilicides inhibit biogenesis of type 1 and P pili of the FGS type which are encoded by uropathogenic E. coli strains. RESULTS: We evaluated the anti-bacterial activity of literature pilicides as blockers of the assembly of a model example of FGL-type adhesive structures--the Dr fimbriae encoded by a dra gene cluster of uropathogenic Escherichia coli strains. In comparison to the strain grown without pilicide, the Dr⁺ bacteria cultivated in the presence of the 3.5 mM concentration of pilicides resulted in a reduction of 75 to 87% in the adherence properties to CHO cells expressing Dr fimbrial DAF receptor protein. Using quantitative assays, we determined the amount of Dr fimbriae in the bacteria cultivated in the presence of 3.5 mM of pilicides to be reduced by 75 to 81%. The inhibition effect of pilicides is concentration dependent, which is a crucial property for their use as potential anti-bacterial agents. The data presented in this article indicate that pilicides in mM concentration effectively inhibit the adherence of Dr⁺ bacteria to the host cells--the crucial, initial step in bacterial pathogenesis. CONCLUSIONS: Structural analysis of the DraB chaperone clearly showed it to be a model of the FGL subfamily of chaperones. This permits us to conclude that analyzed pilicides in mM concentration are effective inhibitors of the assembly of adhesins belonging to the Dr family, and more speculatively, of other FGL-type adhesive organelles. The presented data and those published so far permit to speculate that based on the conservation of chaperone-usher pathway in Gram-negative bacteria , the pilicides are potential anti-bacterial agents with activity against numerous pathogens, the virulence of which is dependent on the adhesive structures of the chaperone-usher type.

Photoluminescent gold nanoclusters as sensing probes for uropathogenic Escherichia coli.

Glycan-bound nanoprobes have been demonstrated as suitable sensing probes for bacteria containing glycan binding sites. In this study, we demonstrated a facile approach for generating glycan-bound gold nanoclusters (AuNCs). The generated AuNCs were used as sensing probes for corresponding target bacteria. Mannose-capped AuNCs (AuNCs@Mann) were generated and used as the model sensors for target bacteria. A one-step synthesis approach was employed to generate AuNCs@Mann. In this approach, an aqueous solution of tetrachloroauric acid and mannoside that functionized with a thiol group (Mann-SH) was stirred at room temperature for 48 h. The mannoside functions as reducing and capping agent. The size of the generated AuNCs@Mann is 1.95±0.27 nm, whereas the AuNCs with red photoluminescence have a maximum emission wavelength of ~630 nm (λexcitation = 375 nm). The synthesis of the AuNCs@Mann was accelerated by microwave heating, which enabled the synthesis of the AuNCs@Mann to complete within 1 h. The generated AuNCs@Mann are capable of selectively binding to the urinary tract infection isolate Escherichia coli J96 containing the mannose binding protein FimH expressed on the type 1 pili. On the basis of the naked eye observation, the limit of detection of the sensing approach is as low as ~2×10(6) cells/mL.

Production of a subunit vaccine candidate against porcine post-weaning diarrhea in high-biomass transplastomic tobacco.

Post-weaning diarrhea (PWD) in piglets is a major problem in piggeries worldwide and results in severe economic losses. Infection with Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is the key culprit for the PWD disease. F4 fimbriae of ETEC are highly stable proteinaceous polymers, mainly composed of the major structural subunit FaeG, with a capacity to evoke mucosal immune responses, thus demonstrating a potential to act as an oral vaccine against ETEC-induced porcine PWD. In this study we used a transplastomic approach in tobacco to produce a recombinant variant of the FaeG protein, rFaeG(ntd/dsc), engineered for expression as a stable monomer by N-terminal deletion and donor strand-complementation (ntd/dsc). The generated transplastomic tobacco plants accumulated up to 2.0 g rFaeG(ntd/dsc) per 1 kg fresh leaf tissue (more than 1% of dry leaf tissue) and showed normal phenotype indistinguishable from wild type untransformed plants. We determined that chloroplast-produced rFaeG(ntd/dsc) protein retained the key properties of an oral vaccine, i.e. binding to porcine intestinal F4 receptors (F4R), and inhibition of the F4-possessing (F4+) ETEC attachment to F4R. Additionally, the plant biomass matrix was shown to delay degradation of the chloroplast-produced rFaeG(ntd/dsc) in gastrointestinal conditions, demonstrating a potential to function as a shelter-vehicle for vaccine delivery. These results suggest that transplastomic plants expressing the rFaeG(ntd/dsc) protein could be used for production and, possibly, delivery of an oral vaccine against porcine F4+ ETEC infections. Our findings therefore present a feasible approach for developing an oral vaccination strategy against porcine PWD.

Fimbrial adhesins produced by atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains.

Atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (aEPEC) has emerged as a significant cause of pediatric diarrhea worldwide; however, information regarding its adherence mechanisms to the human gut mucosa is lacking. In this study, we investigated the prevalence of several (fimA, ecpA, csgA, elfA, and hcpA) fimbrial genes in 71 aEPEC strains isolated from children with diarrhea (54 strains) and healthy individuals (17 strains) in Brazil and Australia by PCR. These genes are associated with adhesion and/or biofilm formation of pathogenic and commensal E. coli. Here, the most prevalent fimbrial genes found, in descending order, were hcpA (98.6%), ecpA (86%), fimA (76%), elfA (72%), and csgA (19.7%). Phenotypic expression of pili in aEPEC strains was assessed by several approaches. We were not able to detect the hemorrhagic coli pilus (HCP) or the E. coli laminin-binding fimbriae (ELF) in these strains by using immunofluorescence. Type 1 pili and curli were detected in 59% (by yeast agglutination) and 2.8% (by Congo red binding and immunofluorescence) of the strains, respectively. The E. coli common pilus (ECP) was evidenced in 36.6% of the strains on bacteria adhering to HeLa cells by immunofluorescence, suggesting that ECP could play an important role in cell adherence for some aEPEC strains. This study highlights the complex nature of the adherence mechanisms of aEPEC strains involving the coordinated function of fimbrial (e.g., ECP) and nonfimbrial (e.g., intimin) adhesins and indicates that these strains bear several pilus operons that could potentially be expressed in different niches favoring colonization and survival in and outside the host.

Linkage between cellular adherence and biofilm formation in Escherichia coli O157:H7 EDL933.

During the establishment of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection, its capacity to adhere to host intestinal epithelial cells is the critical first step in pathogenesis. It also has the capability to form biofilms, and because both are surface activities, we sought to gain insight into a potential linkage between biofilm formation and adherence to epithelial cells. We conducted an adherence assay with 51 biofilm-negative mutants and two human epithelial cell lines, T84 and HEp2. Our results show that unlike wild-type cells, biofilm-negative mutants adhere poorly to epithelial cells. Some adhesin-negative mutants were fully competent in biofilm formation, however. Thus, biofilm-forming activity in E. coli O157:H7 EDL933 is required for adherence to T84 and HEp2 cells, but it is not sufficient.

Adherence factors in atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains expressing the localized adherence-like pattern in HEp-2 cells.

Although atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (aEPEC) strains are frequently implicated in childhood diarrhea in developing countries, not much is known about their adherence properties. The phenotypic and genotypic characterization of 29 aEPEC strains expressing the localized adherence-like pattern points toward the involvement of E. coli common pilus (ECP), intimins, and other known E. coli adhesins in this pattern.

Norepinephrine-dependently released Dr fimbriae of diffusely adhering Escherichia coli strain IH11128 promotes a mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK1/2-dependent production of pro-inflammatory cytokine, IL-8 in human intestinal Caco-2/TC7 cells.

The diffusely adhering Escherichia coli (Afa/Dr DAEC) are associated with recurrent urinary tract infections in adults as well as with diarrheal disease in infants. We previously demonstrated that in wild-type strain IH11128, the Dr fimbriae is released in the extracellular medium in response to multiple environmental signals such as temperature, low aeration and rich medium. A number of molecules of eukaryotic origin, such as catecholamines, have been reported to stimulate bacterial growth and virulence factor production. We show that norepinephrine affects the production and release of Dr fimbriae in Afa/Dr DAEC WT-IH11128 bacteria. The regulatory mechanism involved with norepinephrine-induced Dr fimbriae liberation was apparently due to a differential induction of genes draC, encoding the usher, and draE, encoding the major fimbrial subunit. In addition, we show that the released Dr fimbriae induces the phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, IL-8 in fully differentiated cultured human intestinal Caco-2/TC7 cells.

Secretory expression of K88 (F4) fimbrial adhesin FaeG by recombinant Lactococcus lactis for oral vaccination and its protective immune response in mice.

K88 (F4) fimbrial adhesin, FaeG, was expressed extracellularly in Lactococcus lactis using a nisin-controlled gene expression system. The antibody response and protective efficacy of the recombinant bacteria (L. lactis [spNZ8048-faeG]) against live enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) C(83549) challenge were evaluated in ICR mice. Mice vaccinated with L. lactis [spNZ8048-faeG] had a significantly increased antigen-specific IgG level in the serum and decreased mortality rate (P < 0.05) compared with the control. This indicates that oral immunization of L. lactis [spNZ8048-faeG] can induce an immune-response protection upon challenge with live ETEC in ICR mice.

Roles of pgaABCD genes in synthesis, modification, and export of the Escherichia coli biofilm adhesin poly-beta-1,6-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine.

The linear homopolymer poly-beta-1,6-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (beta-1,6-GlcNAc; PGA) serves as an adhesin for the maintenance of biofilm structural stability in diverse eubacteria. Its function in Escherichia coli K-12 requires the gene products of the pgaABCD operon, all of which are necessary for biofilm formation. PgaC is an apparent glycosyltransferase that is required for PGA synthesis. Using a monoclonal antibody directed against E. coli PGA, we now demonstrate that PgaD is also needed for PGA formation. The deletion of genes for the predicted outer membrane proteins PgaA and PgaB did not prevent PGA synthesis but did block its export, as shown by the results of immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) and antibody adsorption assays. IEM also revealed a conditional localization of PGA at the cell poles, the initial attachment site for biofilm formation. PgaA contains a predicted beta-barrel porin and a superhelical domain containing tetratricopeptide repeats, which may mediate protein-protein interactions, implying that it forms the outer membrane secretin for PGA. PgaB contains predicted carbohydrate binding and polysaccharide N-deacetylase domains. The overexpression of pgaB increased the primary amine content (glucosamine) of PGA. Site-directed mutations targeting the N-deacetylase catalytic activity of PgaB blocked PGA export and biofilm formation, implying that N-deacetylation promotes PGA export through the PgaA porin. The results of previous studies indicated that N-deacetylation of beta-1,6-GlcNAc in Staphylococcus epidermidis by the PgaB homolog, IcaB, anchors it to the cell surface. The deletion of icaB resulted in release of beta-1,6-GlcNAc into the growth medium. Thus, covalent modification of beta-1,6-GlcNAc by N-deacetylation serves distinct biological functions in gram-negative and gram-positive species, dictated by cell envelope differences.

Distribution of virulence profiles related to new toxins and putative adhesins in Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolated from diverse sources in Brazil.

The distribution of virulence markers related to cytolethal distending toxin-V (CDT-V), subtilase cytotoxin (SubAB), the enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli factor for adherence (Efa1), the adhesin similar to IrgA (Iha), the long polar fimbriae (LpfO113), the autoagglutinating adhesin (Saa), and the protein required for full expression of adherence of O157:H7 Sakai strain (ToxB) was investigated in 121 Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) strains isolated in Brazil. STEC strains were isolated from human infections (n=49), cattle (n=68) and ground meat samples (n=4). Overall, the lpfA(O113), iha, efa1, saa, and toxB sequences were observed in 89.2%, 87.6%, 47.1%, 43%, and 13.2% of the strains, respectively. The genes efa1 (96.6%) and toxB (27%) were only identified among eae-positive strains, while saa (83.8%), cdt-V (12.9%), and subAB (48.4%) just occurred in eae-negative STEC strains. STEC strains harboring cdt-V and subAB were for the first time described in the South American subcontinent. In addition, the simultaneous presence of cdt-V and subAB has not been previously reported, nor the presence of subAB in STEC O77, O79, O105, O174, and O178 serogroups. A diversity of virulence profiles was observed among the STEC strains studied. The most prevalent profile observed among eae-positive STEC strains mainly isolated from humans was eae efa1 iha lpfA(O113), whereas iha lpfA(O113) saa ehxA subAB prevailed among eae-negative STEC strains, mostly isolated from cattle and foods.

Mutations affecting the biogenesis of the AIDA-I autotransporter.

Autotransporters are simple systems that Gram-negative bacteria employ to secrete proteins to their surfaces or into the extracellular milieu. They consist of an N-terminal passenger domain and a C-terminal domain that is thought to insert into the outer membrane and mediate the secretion of the passenger domain. Despite the apparent simplicity of these secretion systems, their mechanism of translocation is still not completely understood. To study this mechanism, we used the AIDA-I autotransporter adhesin of Escherichia coli. We introduced mutations at several sites in a junction region of the passenger domain, close to the membrane-embedded domain. We observed that the mutations dramatically affected the biogenesis of AIDA-I. The same mutations, however, did not affect the translocation of a chimeric construct where MalE, the E. coli periplasmic maltose binding protein, replaced most of the passenger domain of AIDA-I. Our results emphasize the function of this region in the biogenesis of AIDA-I and suggest that it plays its role by interacting with and/or promoting folding of native passenger domains.

Chloroplasts assemble the major subunit FaeG of Escherichia coli F4 (K88) fimbriae to strand-swapped dimers.

F4 fimbriae encoded by the fae operon are the major colonization factors associated with porcine neonatal and postweaning diarrhoea caused by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). Via the chaperone/usher pathway, the F4 fimbriae are assembled as long polymers of the major subunit FaeG, which also possesses the adhesive properties of the fimbriae. Intrinsically, the incomplete fold of fimbrial subunits renders them unstable and susceptible to aggregation and/or proteolytic degradation in the absence of a specific periplasmic chaperone. In order to test the possibility of producing FaeG in plants, FaeG expression was studied in transgenic tobacco plants. FaeG was directed to different subcellular compartments by specific targeting signals. Targeting of FaeG to the chloroplast results in much higher yields than FaeG targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum or the apoplast. Two chloroplast-targeted FaeG variants were purified from tobacco plants and crystallized. The crystal structures show that chloroplasts circumvent the absence of the fimbrial assembly machinery by assembling FaeG into strand-swapped dimers. Furthermore, the structures reveal how FaeG combines the structural requirements of a major fimbrial subunit with its adhesive role by grafting an additional domain on its Ig-like core.

Tight modulation of Escherichia coli bacterial biofilm formation through controlled expression of adhesion factors.

Despite the economic and sanitary problems caused by harmful biofilms, biofilms are nonetheless used empirically in industrial environmental and bioremediation processes and may be of potential use in medical settings for interfering with pathogen development. Escherichia coli is one of the bacteria with which biofilm formation has been studied in great detail, and it is especially appreciated for biotechnology applications because of its genetic amenability. Here we describe the development of two new genetic tools enabling the constitutive and inducible expression of any gene or operon of interest at its native locus. In addition to providing valuable tools for complementation and overexpression experiments, these two compact genetic cassettes were used to modulate the biofilm formation capacities of E. coli by taking control of two biofilm-promoting factors, autotransported antigen 43 adhesin and the bscABZC cellulose operon. The modulation of the biofilm formation capacities of E. coli or those of other bacteria capable of being genetically manipulated may be of use both for reducing and for improving the impact of biofilms in a number of industrial and medical applications.