Spatiotemporal variation in phenolic levels in galls of calophyids on Schinus polygama (Anacardiaceae).

The expression of plant secondary metabolism is strongly controlled by plant both in time and space. Although the variation of secondary metabolites, such as soluble and structural phenolics (e.g., lignins), has been largely observed in gall-inducing insects, and compared to their non-galled host organs, only a few datasets recording such variation are available. Accordingly, the relative importance of spatiotemporal variability in phenolic contents, and the influence of gall developmental stages on the original composition of host organs are poorly discussed. To address this knowledge gap, we histochemically determined the sites of polyphenol and lignin accumulation, and the polyphenol contents in three developmental stages of two calophyid galls and their correspondent host organs. Current results indicate that the compartmentalization of phenolics and lignins on Schinus polygama (Cav.) Cabrera follows a similar pattern in the two-calophyid galls, accumulating in the outer (the external tissue layers) and in the inner tissue compartments (the cell layers in contact with the gall chamber). The non-accumulation in the median compartment (median parenchyma layers of gall wall with vascular bundles, where gall inducer feeds) is important for the inducer, because its mouth apparatus enter in contact with the cells of this compartment. Also, the concentration of phenolics has opposite dynamics, decreasing in leaf galls and increasing in stem galls, in temporal scale, i.e., from maturation toward senescence. The concentration of phenolics in non-galled host organs, and in both galls indicated the extended phenotype of Calophya rubra (Blanchard) and C. mammifex Burckhardt & Basset (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Psylloidea: Calophyidae) over the same host plant metabolic potentiality.

Natural enemies of armored scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and soft scales (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Chile: Molecular and morphological identification.

Scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccomorpha) are key pests of agricultural crops and ornamental plants worldwide. Their populations are difficult to control, even with insecticides, due to their cryptic habits. Moreover, there is growing concern over the use of synthetic pesticides for their control, due to deleterious environmental effects and the emergence of resistant populations of target pests. In this context, biological control may be an effective and sustainable approach. Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea includes natural enemies of scale insects that have been successfully used in many biological control programs. However, the correct identification of pest scale species and their natural enemies is particularly challenging because these insects are very small and highly specialized. Integrative taxonomy, coupling DNA barcoding and morphological analysis, has been successfully used to characterize pests and natural enemy species. In this study, we performed a survey of parasitoids and predators of armored and soft scales in Chile, based on 28S and COI barcodes. Fifty-three populations of Diaspididae and 79 populations of Coccidae were sampled over the entire length of the country, from Arica (18°S) to Frutillar (41°S), between January 2015 and February 2016. The phylogenetic relationships obtained by Bayesian inference from multilocus haplotypes revealed 41 putative species of Chalcidoidea, five Coccinellidae and three Neuroptera. Species delimitation was confirmed using ABGD, GMYC and PTP model. In Chalcidoidea, 23 species were identified morphologically, resulting in new COI barcodes for 12 species and new 28S barcodes for 14 species. Two predator species (Rhyzobius lophantae and Coccidophilus transandinus) were identified morphologically, and two parasitoid species, Chartocerus niger and Signiphora bifasciata, were recorded for the first time in Chile.

Megastigmus seed wasp damage on native Schinus terebinthifolia drupes in ecological restoration area in Brazil.

Megastigmus transvaalensis Hussey (Hymenoptera: Torymidae) parasitizes drupes of Rhus genus plants in Africa and Schinus (Anacardiaceae) in South America. This exotic wasp damages Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi drupes in native forests and ecological restoration areas in Brazil. The objective of the present study was to investigate the precipitation, temperature and relative humidity effects on M. transvaalensis flight activity, and to determine the parasitism rate and sex ratio of this wasp on S. terebinthifolia plants. The study was conducted with yellow sticky traps and S. terebinthifolia drupes collected in an ecological restoration area, from August 2014 to September 2015, in the Sorocaba municipality, São Paulo state, Brazil. Megastigmus transvaalensis populations were negatively correlated with maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation, with population peaks at the end of May 2015, with 927 insects per evaluation (48.8 adults per trap). The M. transvaalensis sex ratio was higher in the laboratory (0.42) than in the field (0.08). The parasitism rate of S. terebinthifolia drupes by M. transvaalensis ranged from zero to 36.3% under natural environmental conditions. Megastigmus transvaalensis can be monitored with yellow sticky traps. Damage by M. transvaalensis in S. terebinthifolia drupes may decrease the germination of the seeds and the establishment of this plant in native and restoration ecological areas.

Does Phoradendron perrottetii (mistletoe) alter polyphenols levels of Tapirira guianensis (host plant)?

The present study aimed to investigate the reciprocal effects of Phoradendron perrottetii (mistletoe) and T. guianensis (host plant) regarding their polyphenol composition. Taking into account that tannins are important molecules in plant defense and their biosynthesis tends to be enhanced when a species is exposed to stress, we address the following questions: (1) Are the tannins found in our model species important in the interaction between host and mistletoe? (2) Does the presence of mistletoe induce changes in the content of tannins and other polyphenols in the host plant? (3) Do we find differences between the tannin sub-groups in the responses of the host plant to mistletoe? (4) Could the observed differences reflect the relative importance of one tannin group over another as chemical defense against the mistletoe? Using a polyphenol and tannin group-specific MRM methods we quantified four different tannin sub-groups together with flavonoid and quinic acid derivatives by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry together with the oxidative and protein precipitation activities of leaves and branches of Tapirira guianensis and Phoradendron perrottetii. We selected leaves and branches of six non-parasitized trees of T. guianensis. Leaves and branches of nine individuals of T. guianensis parasitized by P. perrottetii were also sampled. For each parasitized tree, we sampled an infested branch and its leaves, as well as a non-infested branch and its leaves. Infested branches were divided into three groups: gall (the host-parasite interface), proximal, and distal region. Both proanthocyanidins and ellagitanins seem to be important for plant-plant parasitism interaction: host infested tissues (gall and surrounding regions) have clearly less tannin contents than healthy tissues. Mistletoe showed high levels of quinic acid derivatives and flavonoids that could be important during hastorium formation and intrusion on host tissues, suggesting a defense mechanism that could promote oxidative stress together with an inhibition of mistletoe seed germination, consequently avoiding secondary infestations. Polyphenol detected in T. guianensis-P. perrottetii interaction could play different role as plant-mistletoe strategies of survival.

Anatomical and phenological implications of the relationship between Schinus polygama (Cav.) (Cabrera) and the galling insect Calophya rubra (Blanchard).

The success of galling insects could be determined by synchronisation with host plant phenology and climate conditions, ensuring suitable oviposition sites for gall induction and food resources for their survival. The anatomical, histochemical and phenological synchronisation strategies between Calophya rubra (Blanchard) (Hemiptera: Psylloidea) and its host, the evergreen plant Schinus polygama (Cav.) (Cabrera) (Anacardiaceae), in the Mediterranean climate of southern Chile was evaluated and compared to that of the congeneric C. cf. duvauae (Scott) from Brazil and closely related host plant S. engleri in a subtropical climate. Anatomical, histometric, histochemical and vegetative phenology studies of the stem and galls were conducted from June 2015 to December 2016. Based on the anatomical, histometric and histochemical analysis, the conical stem gall traits imply gains over the non-galled stem toward the galling insect survival, but the maintenance of phellem, secretory ducts and pith indicate conservative developmental traits that cannot be manipulated by C. rubra. Our results indicate that the conditions of the Mediterranean climate zone limit C. rubra immature activity during unfavourable periods, probably determining a diapause period and a univoltine life cycle, which are peculiarities of the S. polygama- C. rubra system. The synchronisation between development and seasonality confers peculiarities to the S. polygama- C. rubra system in the Mediterranean climate zone.

Óleo essencial das folhas e frutos de Schinus terebinthifolius raddi no controle de Pratylenchus zeae / Essential oil from the leaves and fruits of Schinus terebinthifolius raddi in the control of pratylenchus zeae / Aceite esencial de las hojas y frutos de Schinus terebinthifolius raddi en el control de pratylenchus zeae

Os óleos essenciais (OEs) são metabólitos secundários que podem apresentar potencial no controle alternativo de nematoides. Assim objetivou-se testar o OE de pimenta rosa no controle de P. zeae em condições in vitro e na cultura do milho. O OE foi extraído por hidrodestilação, utilizando massa fresca das folhas e frutos maduros. O experimento in vitro foi instalado em arranjo fatorial 8x2, sendo oito concentrações (0,00, 7,80, 15,00, 31,00, 62,00, 125,00, 250,00 e 500,00 µg mL-1) e OE das folhas e dos frutos. As unidades experimentais foram tubos de ensaio com capacidade para 5mL, contendo 1 mL de cada concentração, e 1mL de suspensão de 50 nematoides. Decorrido 48 horas avaliou-se a porcentagem de mortalidade. O experimento em casa de vegetação foi instalado em arranjo fatorial 5x2, sendo cinco concentrações (0,00, 7,8, 15,0, 31,0 e 62,0 µg mL-1) e OEs (Folhas e frutos). As unidades experimentais constituíram-se por vasos com capacidade para 1,5 kg, os quais foram inoculados com 2000 e 1800 nematoides e semeados com sementes de milho tratadas com as concentrações dos OEs. Os OEs e as concentrações avaliadas apresentaram porcentagem de mortalidade em condições in vitro e reduziram a população de P. zeae, em casa de vegetação, o OE dos frutos promoveu maior mortalidade nos testes in vitro. Sendo assim os OEs demonstraram potencial no controle de fitonematoide, porém, há a necessidade de estudos a aplicabilidade dos mesmos.(AU)

Essential oils (EOs) are secondary metabolites that may present potential for an alternative control of nematodes. The purpose of this study was to test the EO of pink peppercorn in the control of P. zeae under in-vitro conditions and in the maize crop. Essential Oil was extracted by hydro-distillation using fresh leaf mass and mature fruits. The in-vitro experiment was installed in an 8x2 factorial arrangement, with eight concentrations (0.00, 7.8, 15.0, 31.0, 62.0, 125.0, 250.0 and 500.0 µg mL-1) and EO from leaves and fruits. The experimental units were 5-mL test tubes containing 1 mL of each concentration and 1 mL of suspension of 50 nematodes. The mortality percentage was evaluated after 48 hours. The greenhouse experiment was installed in a 5x2 factorial arrangement, with five concentrations (0.00, 7.8, 15.0, 31.0 and 62.0 µg mL-1) and EOs (leaves and fruits). The experimental units consisted of 1.5-kg capacity vases, which were inoculated with 2000 and 1800 nematodes, and seeded with corn seeds treated with EO concentrations. The EOs and concentrations evaluated presented a mortality percentage under the in-vitro conditions and reduced the P. zeae population in the greenhouse, while the EO from the fruits promoted higher mortality in the in-vitro tests. Therefore, EOs have shown potential in the control of phytonematodes, but further studies are required for their applicability.(AU)

Los aceites esenciales (OEs) son metabolitos secundarios que pueden presentar potencial en el control alternativo de nematodos. Así se objetivó probar el OE de pimienta rosa en el control de P. zeae en condiciones in vitro y en el cultivo del maíz. El OE fue extraído por hidrodestilación utilizando masa fresca de las hojas y frutos maduros. El experimento in vitro fue instalado en un arreglo factorial 8x2, siendo ocho concentraciones (0,00, 7,80, 15,00, 31,00, 62,00, 125,00, 250,00 y 500,00 µg mL-1) y OE de las hojas y de los frutos. Las unidades experimentales fueron tubos de ensayo con capacidad para 5 mL, conteniendo 1 mL de cada concentración, y 1 mL de suspensión de 50 nematodos. Después de 48 horas se evaluó el porcentaje de mortalidad. El experimento en casa de vegetación fue instalado en arreglo factorial 5x2, siendo cinco concentraciones (0,00, 7,8, 15,0, 31,0 y 62,0 µg mL-1) y OEs (Hojas y frutos). Las unidades experimentales se constituyeron por floreras con capacidad para 1,5 kg, los cuales fueron inoculados con 2000 y 1800 nematodos y sembrados con semillas de maíz tratadas con las concentraciones de los OEs. Los OEs y las concentraciones evaluadas presentaron un porcentaje de mortalidad en condiciones in vitro y redujeron la población de P. zeae, en casa de vegetación, el OE de los frutos promovió mayor mortalidad en las pruebas in vitro. Así los OE demostraron potencial en el control de fitonematodos, sin embargo, hay la necesidad de estudios a la aplicabilidad de los mismos.(AU)

DNA barcode for the identification of the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis plant feeding preferences in a tropical urban environment.

Little is known about the feeding behavior of hematophagous insects that require plant sugar to complete their life cycles. We studied plant feeding of Lutzomyia longipalpis sand flies, known vectors of Leishmania infantum/chagasi parasites, in a Brazilian city endemic with visceral leishmaniasis. The DNA barcode technique was applied to identify plant food source of wild-caught L. longipalpis using specific primers for a locus from the chloroplast genome, ribulose diphosphate carboxylase. DNA from all trees or shrubs within a 100-meter radius from the trap were collected to build a barcode reference library. While plants from the Anacardiaceae and Meliaceae families were the most abundant at the sampling site (25.4% and 12.7% of the local plant population, respectively), DNA from these plant families was found in few flies; in contrast, despite its low abundance (2.9%), DNA from the Fabaceae family was detected in 94.7% of the sand flies. The proportion of sand flies testing positive for DNA from a given plant family was not significantly associated with abundance, distance from the trap, or average crown expansion of plants from that family. The data suggest that there may indeed be a feeding preference of L. longipalpis for plants in the Fabaceae family.

Ecosystem engineering and manipulation of host plant tissues by the insect borer Oncideres albomarginata chamela.

Ecosystem engineering by insect herbivores occurs as the result of structural modification of plants manipulated by insects. However, only few studies have evaluated the effect of these modifications on the plant responses induced by stem-borers that act as ecosystem engineers. In this study, we evaluated the responses induced by the herbivory of the twig-girdler beetle Oncideres albomarginata chamela (Cerambycidae: Lamiinae) on its host plant Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae), and its relationship with the ecosystem engineering process carried out by this stem-borer. Our results demonstrated that O. albomarginata chamela branch removal induced the development of lateral branches increasing the resources needed for the development of future insect generations, of its own offspring and of many other insect species. Detached branches represent habitats with high content of nitrogen and phosphorous, which eventually can be incorporated into the ecosystem, increasing nutrient cycling efficiency. Consequently, branch removal and the subsequent plant tissue regeneration induced by O. albomarginata chamela represent key mechanisms underlying the ecosystem engineering process carried out by this stem-borer, which enhances arthropod diversity in the ecosystem.

The exotic wasp Megastigmus transvaalensis (Hymenoptera: Torymidae): first record and damage on the Brazilian peppertree, Schinus terebinthifolius drupes, in São Paulo, Brazil.

This paper records the first report of Megastigmus transvaalensis Hussey (Hymenoptera: Torymidae) in Brazilian peppertree, Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (Anacardiaceae) drupes in Sorocaba, state of São Paulo, Brazil. This wasp is an invasive species and was found damaging S. terebinthifolius drupes in urban areas (35.0 ± 15.8%), natural forests (21.5 ± 10.2%) and restoration areas (15.8 ± 8.4%). The bio-ecology and damage caused by M. transvaalensis in the S. terebinthifolius drupes warrants further study focused upon the management of this phytophagous wasp. Megastigmus transvaalensis has a potential to be disseminated throughout Brazil and is posing a threat to the natural regeneration of S. terebinthifolius in the native forests and restoration areas and ecological regions of this country.

Acute and subchronic toxicity as well as evaluation of safety pharmacology of Galla chinensis solution.

Galla chinensis has been popularly used in traditional Chinese medicine which is beneficial for the treatment of various diseases, such as inflammation, dysentery, toxicosis and sore. However, it has not previously been evaluated for safety through systematic toxicological studies. In the present study, acute and subchronic oral toxicity studies and safety pharmacology evaluation of Galla chinensis solution (GCS) were conducted in specific pathogen-free (SPF) Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Acute administration of GCS was done as single dose from 3333 mg to 6912 mg per kg/bodyweight (bw) and subchronic toxicity study for 30 days was done by daily oral administration of GCS at doses of 500, 1500 and 2500 mg/kg body weight in SPF SD rats. The acute toxicity study showed the LD50 of GCS was greater than 5000 mg/kg. The results of sunchronic toxicity study showed that the no-observed effect level of GCS was lesser than 1500 mg/kg bw day, which suggested three times higher than that of recommended dose for clinical applications (500 mg/kg bw day). The dose at 2500 mg/kg bw day of GCS may slow down the growth of rats and lead to degeneration and necrosis of tissue cells to some extent. In the safety pharmacology study, GCS did not produce any side effects to rats in central nervous system, cardiovascular system and respiratory system. Therefore, from the results of the study presented herein, it could be concluded that the use of appropriate levels (one to three times of recommended dose for clinical applications) of GCS as a topical preparations is considered safe.

Host-species-dependent physiological characteristics of hemiparasite Santalum album in association with N2-fixing and non-N2-fixing hosts native to southern China.

Understanding the interactions between the hemiparasite Santalum album L. and its hosts has theoretical and practical significance in sandalwood plantations. In a pot study, we tested the effects of two non-N2-fixing (Bischofia polycarpa (Levl.) Airy Shaw and Dracontomelon duperreranum Pierre) and two N2-fixing hosts (Acacia confusa Merr. and Dalbergia odorifera T. Chen) on the growth characteristics and nitrogen (N) nutrition of S. album. Biomass production of shoot, root and haustoria, N and total amino acid were significantly greater in S. album grown with the two N2-fixing hosts. Foliage and root δ(15)N values of S. album were significantly lower when grown with N2-fixing than with non-N2-fixing hosts. Significantly higher photosynthetic rates and ABA (abscisic acid) concentrations were seen in S. album grown with D. odorifera. Similarity in the proportional amounts of amino acid of root xylem sap between S. album and its host D. odorifera was also evident, suggesting major access to nitrogenous solutes from D. odorifera to S. album. Irrespective of host species, S. album clearly appeared to optimize xylem sap extraction from its hosts by higher transpiration and lower water-use efficiency than its host. The growth of two non-N2-fixing hosts parasitized by S. album was significantly greater than the equivalent values for unparasitized treatments, and lower growth and photosynthesis were observed for parasitized A. confusa, and significant decreases in root N, photosynthesis and transpiration for parasitized D. odorifera compared with unparasitized treatments. Furthermore, foliage ABA concentrations were significantly higher in all hosts parasitized by S. album than in their unparasitized counterparts. Our study is probably the first to report on host dependence and preference in the hemiparasite S. album, and the generated results may have important implications for understanding of the physiological interactions between host species and parasitic plants, and for successfully mixing plantations of S. album with D. odorifera.

Developmental pathway from leaves to galls induced by a sap-feeding insect on Schinus polygamus (Cav.) Cabrera (Anacardiaceae).

Galling sap-feeding insects are presumed to cause only minor changes in host plant tissues, because they usually do not require development of nutritive tissues for their own use. This premise was examined through comparison of the histometry, cytometry and anatomical development of non-galled leaves and galls of Calophya duvauae (Scott) (Hemiptera: Calophyidae) on Schinus polygamus (Cav.) Cabrera (Anacardiaceae). Cell fates changed from non-galled leaves to galls during the course of tissue differentiation. C. duvauae caused changes in dermal, ground, and vascular systems of the leaves of S. polygamus. Its feeding activity induced the homogenization of the parenchyma, and the neoformation of vascular bundles and trichomes. The histometric and cytometric data revealed compensatory effects of hyperplasia and cell hypertrophy in the epidermis, with hyperplasia predominating in the adaxial epidermis. There was a balance between these processes in the other tissues. Thus, we found major differences between the developmental pathways of non-galled leaves and galls. These changes were associated with phenotypic alterations related to shelter and appropriate microenvironmental conditions for the gall inducer. The nondifferentiation of a typical nutritive tissue in this case was compared to other non-phylogenetically related arthropod gall systems, and is suggested to result from convergence associated with the piercing feeding apparatus of the corresponding gall-inducer.

Dinámica de polifenoles y estudio anatomo-histoquímico en Schinus longifolius (Lindl.) Speg. (Anacardiaceae) en respuesta a la infección por Calophya mammifex (Hemiptera – Calophyidae) / Dynamics of polyphenols and anatomical and histochemical study in Schinus longifolius (Lindl.) Speg. (Anacardiaceae) in response to infection by Calophya mammifex (Hemiptera - Calophyidae)

Total phenols, total tannins, proanthocyanidins, total flavonoids and total hydroxycinnamic acids of healthy leaves and galls of Schinus longifolius (Lindl.) Speg. (Anacardiaceae) infected by Calophya mammifex (Hemiptera - Calophyidae) were analized. The gall presents a qualitative and quantitative change in the polyphenols analysed, with a reduction of phenols, tannins, flavonoids and hydroxycinnamic acids and an increased content of proanthocyanidins, whose monomer yielded cyanidin after acid cleavage. An anatomical survey was performed and clusters of sclereids and an increased vascular development respect of the healthy leaf were found. An histochemical survey showed a differential expression of polyphenolic compounds in their tissues. C. mammifex could use the gall as a shelter against adverse weather conditions and predators, and also provide food with less potentially harmful compounds in the early stages of its development.

Se analizaron los fenoles totales, taninos totales, proantocianidinas, flavonoides totales y ácidos hidroxicinámicos totales de hojas sanas y agallas de Schinus longifolius (Lindl.) Speg. (Anacardiaceae) infectado por Calophya mammifex (Hemiptera - Calophyidae). La agalla presenta una variación cuali-cuantitativa de los polifenoles estudiados, con una disminución de los fenoles, taninos, flavonoides y ácidos hidroxicinámicos y un aumento en el contenido de proantocianidinas, cuyo monómero se transforma en cianidina luego del clivaje ácido. Se realizó además un análisis anatómico de la agalla donde se encontraron acúmulos de esclereidas y un mayor desarrollo vascular respecto de la hoja sana y un ensayo histoquímico que mostró una expresión diferencial de metabolitos polifenólicos en sus tejidos. C. mammifex utiliza la agalla como refugio contra las condiciones climáticas adversas y predadores y provee además de alimento con menos compuestos potencialmente perjudiciales en las etapas tempranas de su desarrollo.

Fundamental host range of Pseudophilothrips ichini s.l. (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae): a candidate biological control agent of Schinus terebinthifolius (Sapindales: Anacardiaceae) in the United States.

Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (Sapindales: Anacardiaceae) is a non-native perennial woody plant that is one of the most invasive weeds in Florida, Hawaii, and more recently California and Texas. This plant was introduced into Florida from South America as a landscape ornamental in the late 19th century, eventually escaped cultivation, and now dominates entire ecosystems in south-central Florida. Recent DNA studies have confirmed two separate introductions of S. terebinthifolius in Florida, and there is evidence of hybridization. A thrips, Pseudophilothrips ichini s.l. (Hood) (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae), is commonly found attacking shoots and flowers of S. terebinthifolius in Brazil. Immatures and occasionally adults form large aggregations on young terminal growth (stems and leaves) of the plant. Feeding damage by P. ichini s.l. frequently kills new shoots, which reduces vigor and restricts growth of S. terebinthifolius. Greenhouse and laboratory host range tests with 46 plant species in 18 families and 10 orders were conducted in Paraná, Brazil, and Florida. Results of no-choice, paired-choice, and multiple-choice tests indicated that P. ichini s.l. is capable of reproducing only on S. terebinthifolius and possibly Schinus molle L., an ornamental introduced into California from Peru that has escaped cultivation and is considered invasive. Our results showed that P. ichini s.l. posed minimal risk to mature S. molle plants or the Florida native Metopium toxiferum L. Krug and Urb. In May 2007, the federal interagency Technical Advisory Group for Biological Control Agents of Weeds (TAG) concluded P. ichini s.l. was sufficiently host specific to recommend its release from quarantine.

Application of feces extracts and synthetic analogues of the host marking pheromone of Anastrepha ludens significantly reduces fruit infestation by A. obliqua in tropical plum and mango backyard orchards.

We determined the efficacy of three potential oviposition deterrents in reducing fruit infestation by Anastrepha obliqua in tropical plum and mango orchards. These were: (1) Extracts of feces of Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens, known to contain the A. ludens host marking pheromone (HMP) and (2) two fully synthetic simplified analogues of the naturally occurring compound, which we have named desmethyl A. ludens HMP (DM-HMP) and Anastrephamide. Two applications of feces extracts 2 or 3 wk before fruit color break reduced A. obliqua infestation in plums by 94.1, 75.9, and 72% when measured 8, 14, and 25 d, respectively, after application. The natural A. ludens-HMP containing extract retained its effectiveness despite considerable rainfall (112.5 mm) and high A. obliqua populations. The synthetic desmethyl HMP derivative (DM-HMP) also reduced infestation in plums by 53.3 and 58.7% when measured, 18 and 26 d, respectively, after application. Finally, applications of Anastrephamide resulted in fruit loss cut by half and an 80% reduction in numbers of fly larvae per fruit. Our results confirm previous findings indicating that there is interspecific cross-recognition of the HMP in two of the most pestiferous Anastrepha species and open the door for the development of a highly selective, biorational Anastrepha management scheme.

Vannella epipetala n. sp. isolated from the leaf surface of Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae) growing in the dry forest of Costa Rica.

As part of a Microbial Observatory of Caterpillars located in the Area de Conservacíon Guanacaste (ACG) in northwestern Costa Rica, we isolated a novel species of the genus Vannella associated with the food of the caterpillars of the saturniid moth Rothschildia lebeau, namely the leaves of the dry forest deciduous tree Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae). The new species can be distinguished from other described species of the genus by the presence of a plasmalemma coated with a thickened, osmiophilic lamina containing glycostyles, and by its unusual habitat, the leaf surfaces or phylosphere of S. mombin. We further established the novelty of our isolate by sequencing its nuclear small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene and inferring its phylogenetic position among all other currently sequenced members of the genera Vannella and Platyamoeba. Our results reveal that our isolate shares most recent common ancestry with three strains of Platyamoeba placida, the type species of the genus Platyamoeba. Despite this placement, the isolate clearly possesses glycostyles that are the hallmark of the genus Vannella. In addition to the cultured isolate, we also present a closely related sequence from a SSU rRNA gene clone library constructed from a DNA extract of leaf-wash of S. mombin with sterile water.

Biological control of Aphis gossypii on pepper plant using Coccinella algerica.

To calibrate biological control in pepper plant against Aphis gossypii using Coccinella algerica different experimentation were made. The consumption of C. algerica during the larval stage was enumerated in laboratory conditions. The densities (1, 4, 8 larvae/plant) to L2 stage of C. algerica necessarily to decrease aphid's populations were determined in plant pepper and the daily consumption in the pepper plant at the different densities was calculated. The density with 8 larvae at semi natural conditions is higher significantly. In protected crop of pepper, different releases to C. algerica were made with eggs, second stage larva and with ladybird before infestation with A. gossypii. A strategy to introduce L2 stage is preferred than the release with punters of C. algerica at different densities. At the same, the Introduce L2 stage is compared to release the C. algerica ladybird before the infestation of A. gossypii in the protected crops. The activity of ladybird has been maintained in the protected crop and it was shown when the infestation appeared.