Technological Advances in Exotic Pet Anesthesia and Analgesia.

Even when performed by skilled operators, locating the nerves can be challenging in small exotic pets; in such cases, the use of an electrical nerve stimulator may be useful to confirm the correct identification of the target nerve. Exotic animal anesthesia and analgesia have dramatically progressed over the past decade and continue to do so as more research and technologies develop. Technological advancements such as airway devices, endoscopic intubation techniques, positive intermittent pressure ventilators, and invasive and noninvasive blood pressure monitors have played a significant role in improving patient safety and the anesthetic outcomes of exotic animals.

Technological Advances in Wound Treatment of Exotic Pets.

Although most research about the use of technological advances for wound healing was performed in laboratory animals but oriented to human medicine, recent technological advances allowed its application not only to small animals but also to exotic pets. This article reviews the literature available about some of these techniques (negative wound pressure therapy, photobiomodulation [laser therapy], electrical stimulation therapy, therapeutic ultrasonography, hyperbaric oxygen therapy), and other advances in wound management (skin expanders, xenografts, and bioengineered autologous skin substitutes) in exotic pet species.

Skeletal Cartilage and Bone Formation, Composition, and Function in Small Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles.

Cartilage and bone are the main skeletal tissues in exotic vertebrates and are distinguished by their cells and the extracellular matrices they produce. Differences in cartilage and bone formation and growth exist among small mammals, birds, and reptiles. A basic knowledge of cartilage and bone formation, composition, and function in small mammals, birds, and reptiles commonly kept as pets, and the major differences observed among species, is necessary to correctly evaluate and treat cartilage and bone lesions in these groups of animals.

Ambulatory Anesthesia for the Exotic Veterinary Practitioner.

With the growing popularity in the ownership of nontraditional species, there is a growing need for veterinarians to be able to provide out-of-clinic health assessments on privately owned exotic species. Ambulatory anesthesia is often required for diagnostic and surgical procedures in remote or nonhospital settings. Anesthesia for diagnostic procedures is commonly used to ensure the safety of personnel and exotic veterinary patients, particularly when there is an inability to transport the animal to the clinic. The challenges of exotic animal anesthesia are further compounded by the logistical challenges of performing anesthesia outside of the hospital setting.

The Educated Guess: Determining Drug Doses in Exotic Animals Using Evidence-Based Medicine.

Lack of species-specific pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data is a challenge for pharmaceutical and dose selection. If available, dose extrapolation can be accomplished via basic equations. If unavailable, several methods have been described. Linear scaling uses an established milligrams per kilograms dose based on weight. This does not allow for differences in species drug metabolism, sometimes resulting in toxicity. Allometric scaling correlates body weight and metabolic rate but fails for drugs with significant hepatic metabolism and cannot be extrapolated to avians or reptiles. Evidence-based veterinary medicine for dose design based on species similarity is discussed, considering physiologic differences between classes.

Compounding and Extralabel Use of Drugs in Exotic Animal Medicine.

Extralabel drug use is the use of a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug in a manner different from what is stipulated on the approved label. Compounding is the process of preparing a medication in a manner not indicated on the label to create a formulation specifically tailored to the needs of an individual patient. Extralabel drug use and compounding are vital aspects of safe and effective drug delivery to patients in exotic animal practice. There are few FDA-approved drugs for exotic animal species, and many approved drugs for other species are not available in suitable formulations for use in exotic animals.

Overview of Drug Delivery Methods in Exotics, Including Their Anatomic and Physiologic Considerations.

Drug delivery to exotic animals may be extrapolated from domestic animals, but some physiologic and anatomic differences complicate treatment administration. Knowing these differences enables one to choose optimal routes for drug delivery. This review provides practitioners with a detailed review of the currently reported methods used for drug delivery of various medications in the most common exotic animal species. Exotic animal peculiarities that are relevant for drug administration are discussed in the text and outlined in tables and boxes to help the reader easily find targeted information.

Principles of Wound Management and Wound Healing in Exotic Pets.

The care of wounds in exotic animal species can be a challenging endeavor. Special considerations must be made in regard to the animal's temperament and behavior, unique anatomy and small size, and tendency toward secondary stress-related health problems. It is important to assess the entire patient with adequate systemic evaluation and consideration of proper nutrition and husbandry, which could ultimately affect wound healing. This article summarizes the general phases of wound healing, factors that affect healing, and principles of wound management. Emphasis is placed on novel methods of treating wounds and species differences in wound management and healing.

Evaluation of the Blood Film.

Evaluation of hemic cell morphology in stained blood film may be the most important part of the hematologic evaluation of exotic animals. The blood film provides important information regarding red blood cell abnormalities, such as changes in cell shape and color, presence of inclusions, and, in the case of lower vertebrates, changes in the position of the cell nucleus. Stained blood film also provides information about changes in leukocyte numbers and morphology, and shows important hemic features of mammalian platelets and the thrombocytes of lower vertebrates. The blood film is needed in the detection and identification of blood parasites.